Glossary

A survey question that includes two distinct issues in the same question. This type of wording should be avoided in survey construction.

Serious and unfavourable events that can occur in the context of research studies, which are typically unexpected. Examples include but are not limited to harmful incidents during data collection or unintended disclosure of identities of participants. REBs require that researchers report these events and may require that studies be halted until the issues are investigated and resolved.

Data from multiple sources that are summarized and compiled to examine trends or statistical analysis. They are the sum of their component parts or smaller units of data.

Risk that is present in any environment, such as cold viruses.

A list of literature sources that includes a proper citation followed by a short descriptive summary or critical evaluation of the main details within the source.

When the identity of the participant cannot be determined from the information provided. For example, the case of anonymous surveys where the participants are never known to the researcher and no identifying information is collected.

The purpose of social science research when the researcher seeks to find solutions to real-life issues. It involves either problem analysis, which asks “what if" questions as it relies on social science methods to determine the utility of some proposed solution, or evaluation research, which asks "what happened” questions in situations where a solution has already been implemented. This purpose can be combined with any one or more of the other purposes of research.

The categories/options of variation a variable can take. Variables are made up of a logical grouping of attributes. For example, the eye colour green is an attribute of the variable “eye colour.”

One of the criteria used to assess the rigor of qualitative methods. It refers to the “extent to which researchers fairly and faithfully show a range of different realities” (Polit & Beck, 2020, p. 416). Authenticity is not limited to the breadth of perspectives, as it also includes recognition that each perspective or reality has meaning and worth.

The ability and right to make your own choices, such as whether to participate in research or not.

A chart used to represent univariate distributions in a graphical format instead of a table. Bar charts are generally best to represent nominal, ordinal and grouped interval data with several categories.

Statistical tests that assess the extent of the relationship between two variables.

Hello (in Anishinaabe/Ojibwe).

Themes that aim to tentatively explore meaning in relation to the research question(s) and the entire dataset. They are "candidates" for final themes but may not be selected.

The idea that one event, behaviour, or belief will result in the occurrence of another subsequent event, behaviour, or belief.

A bias which involves “citing or not citing a source for reasons other than its relevance and quality,” with gender, race, ethnicity and nationality impacting the likelihood of being cited (Ray et al., 2024, p. 159).

A type of true experiment characterized by random assignment to treatment and control groups, allowing for the establishment of causal relationships between variables.

Quantitative interview questions that include a list of pre-determined response options from which the respondent must choose.

A probability sampling technique that does not begin with a sampling frame as a list of all units in the target population is not available, though a list of all clusters or groups within the population is. A random selection of clusters is chosen, and then a list of all units – or a sampling frame – within each cluster is created, making it possible to then conduct simple random sampling.

Small groups for which a sampling frame is available, thus allowing for the use of simple random sampling within the clusters when cluster sampling is used.

A document or booklet that lists and describes all codes developed during qualitative data analysis. The document resembles a detailed legend that can be referred back to by the researcher to ensure all data passages have been correctly coded. 

Labels or tags given to words or phrases in qualitative data in the analysis stage to represent more complex ideas in simple form. 

The process of systematically organizing and labelling raw qualitative data to find patterns and themes, or conceptual categories. 

A type of longitudinal study where data are collected at multiple time points from people who share a common characteristic or experience; for example, a graduating cohort from a university or residents of New York during 9/11.

A longitudinal survey administered at more than one point in time to the same sub-category of people within the general population with the goal of examining overall changes over time within that same sub-category. An example of a cohort is people who are all born in the same decade.

Where the research is driven by community concerns and needs and where the community is involved throughout the research process.

A group in a quasi-experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment, serving as a benchmark to measure the treatment’s effects. This group is crucial for establishing causal relationships and evaluating an intervention’s effectiveness by providing a reference point against the experimental group.

A role taken by a field researcher that involves solely observing the phenomenon of interest from a distance, with no participation.

A role taken by a field researcher that involves being completely immersed into the phenomenon of interest and interacting with the members of that population in their natural setting, with or without their knowledge of your research intentions.

The abstract notion or image that comes to mind when we think of some cluster of related observations or ideas.

The specific aspects or elements of a concept that make that concept more measurable, manageable and easier to analyze.

The process of clearly and concretely defining key terms or concepts.

One aspect of criterion validity that refers to whether a measure is able to predict outcomes from another established measure given at the same time.

The protection of research participants’ identities by ensuring that identifying information is removed or altered from the final research report.

A criterion of trustworthiness in qualitative research that refers to the degree to which the results reported are linked to the data obtained from participants.

When a stake in a role held, either personal or professional, interferes with or overrides decisions made in another role. Decisions made are often for personal gain in one role and may not be the best decision in the role in which the decision is made.  Researchers must reflect on and avoid any real or perceived conflicts of interest.

Extraneous factors that may influence the dependent variable, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Making people aware of a social issue and their own relationship to that issue.

When research participants agree to participate in research, they may provide consent. This decision should come only after being fully informed of all that they are being asked to do, as well as the risks and benefits of participating. Consent must be voluntary and free from pressure or persuasion to engage in the research.

Assessment of how well the constructs (or attributes of a construct) relate to each other in predicable and/or theoretical ways.

Abstract concepts that cannot be directly or indirectly observed, such as socioeconomic status or masculinity; constructs can be defined, or “constructed,” based on a collection of indirect observables. For example, socioeconomic status can be defined and measured by the variables of income, education, and occupation, which are indirect observables.

A research method used to study communications such as texts or images and examine their meaning in a particular social context.

A type of validity that refers to whether the measure includes all the possible meanings of the concept.

Using words that fit the understanding of your participants.

A question that is only asked to certain respondents based on their answers to a previous question.

A group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment or intervention, serving as a baseline to compare against the experimental group.

A non-probability sampling technique that relies purely on ease of access. The observations of the chosen population of interest are readily available, such as people walking by on a street corner. This sampling technique, often described as haphazard, is most useful in exploratory research.

When two variables are associated with one another, meaning when one is present, the other is also present. Correlation is necessary but not sufficient to show causation.

Codes that are outliers.

Whether the claim is of a kind that, given what we know about how the research was carried out, we can judge it to be very likely to be true. 

A type of validity that refers to how well a measure is related to some other concept or factor. It can be either predictive or concurrent.

One of the paradigms in the social sciences. It focuses on power and inequality. According to this paradigm, power dynamics and biases play into all social interactions as well as research decisions and, as such, scientific research cannot be objective or value-free. Feminism is an example of a theory that falls under the critical paradigm.

A type of research design focused on a single point in time that offers researchers a snapshot of respondents’ lives, opinions, and behaviours at the time the data were collected. An example could be a survey asking about respondents’ current views on a high-profile court case or an interview querying how participants feel about a specific issue that captures their views and opinions at a single point in time.

A survey that is administered once, with no follow-up, providing a snapshot of respondents’ opinions, beliefs, or preferences at that one point in time.

Managing information in a way that is consistent with the laws, practices and customs of a particular nation.

When the participant may not know that they are a part of a research project or are not informed in advance about the true purpose of the research project. There are very limited circumstances in which deception is justified or allowable, specifically where the risk is minimal, the absence of free, full and informed consent presents no risks to participant welfare, the research question can be answered no other way, and participants will be debriefed.

A research approach that begins with theory, then proceeds to the collection and analysis of the data and eventually results in testing whether or not the data support the theory. It can be described as moving from the general (theory) to the specific (data). The deductive approach to research typically employs quantitative methods. It can be used in combination with an inductive approach.

An approach that focuses on what is wrong with an individual or community and narrows attention to explanation for the problem and how to solve it. When used within research, this perspective has tended to reify negative and colonial notions of Indigenous communities.

When researchers interpret community problems that are the product of structural factors as being caused by individual choices. 

A criterion of trustworthiness in qualitative research that refers to the importance of ensuring that proper qualitative procedures were followed and that any changes that emerged during the research process are accounted for, justified, and described in the final report.

The outcome variable that researchers measure in a research study – it is expected to change as a result of manipulations to the independent variable.

The purpose of social science research when the researcher uses systematic observation of a phenomenon to describe or define it in detail. Counting or documenting observations is the typical scope of descriptive research. What, where and when questions are typically asked. This purpose can be combined with any one or more of the other purposes of research.

Statistics that focus on our sample data alone, such as frequency distributions, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion for one or more variables in a study.

When a closed-ended survey question has only two response options, which are often exact opposites. For example, yes and no are dichotomous response options.

Things that can been seen and observed with the naked eye, like the colour of a car or a street sign.

The study of how language shapes meaning, power, and social relations.

An error pertaining to the unit of analysis that researchers must avoid, which involves making individual-level conclusions while relying on group-level data.

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-world settings – it assesses how well experimental conditions reflect actual environments.

The management of one’s emotions in the context of doing work. 

A level of analysis that originates in or is based on observation or experience. It can be referred to as the level of actual observations and the analysis of actual data.

Questions that can be answered by observing experiences in the real world.

The idea that all learning and knowledge comes only from experience and observations. If something cannot be seen or measured, it does not exist. Empiricism is a foundational concept within the positivist paradigm.

A philosophical term that has to do with knowledge and deals with questions of how we know what we know and the ways we uncover knowledge.

Questions that ask about general moral opinions about a topic and cannot be answered through science.

A qualitative method of field research that involves a long period of immersion within a field setting to understand the social context in all its nuanced complexity and then writing about that culture.

The attempt to improve human populations through selective breeding and sterilization.

This is a quality of our variables, meaning all possible attributes are listed and every observation can fit with one attribute. In the context of survey research, this means that all possible response options are listed.  For example, if eye colour is the variable, every possible attribute of eye colour should be listed (black, brown, grey, blue, and so on). Often, the option of “other” is included at the end of the survey response options listed to ensure each response option is accounted for.

A controlled investigation that tests hypotheses by manipulating independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables, often using random assignment to attribute results to the manipulation rather than outside factors.

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested, allowing researchers to observe its effects compared to the control group.

The specific intervention or manipulation introduced by researchers in an experiment intended to elicit a response from participants.

The purpose of social science research when the researcher sets out to determine the cause(s) and effect(s) of some phenomenon of interest. Why and how questions are typically asked in explanatory research. This purpose can be combined with any one or more of the other purposes of research.

The purpose of social science research when the area of inquiry is new and little is already known on the topic. Assessing the extent of a phenomenon, generating initial ideas and testing the feasibility of a more extensive examination are all potential goals of exploratory research. This purpose can be combined with any one or more of the other purposes of research.

An assessment of the ability to generalize findings from a study to a larger setting, group, or population.

A type of validity that speaks to how plausible it is that the measure actually measures what it intends to.

How likely it is that a study will be conducted, considering time and resource needs.

Experiments conducted in natural settings rather than controlled laboratory environments, providing insights into real-world behaviours and interactions.

A qualitative research method that involves observing and interacting with the phenomenon of interest in the natural setting in which it occurs. The level of participation in the phenomenon of interest ranges on a continuum, from full observation to full participation.

The notes taken by a field researcher on all observations as well as all researcher reflections and thoughts about what is observed throughout the course of the data collection phase of the research. These notes should be taken as soon as possible after the observations, or even during the observations if possible, and should be highly inclusive and detailed.

A qualitative research method that involves a guided group discussion with approximately 6–8 participants (the size depends on a number of factors) and a moderator. It is the interaction between group members that is key to generating data.

A more narrow and refined process of organizing qualitative data that occurs after open coding, whereby the researcher narrows, collapses and/or merges themes or categories. These categories are then labelled, and data passages are re-sorted under each of these newly labelled categories. 

A table that visually displays the distribution of one variable through aggregated counts and percentages of participants in each category of the variable. These distributions allow researchers to easily interpret the data and identify any potential data entry errors.

People who are in a position to grant or deny access to a social setting.

One of the key concepts of sampling, it refers to the idea that a study’s results will tell us something about a group larger than the sample from which the findings were generated.

Literature or sources that have not undergone a peer-review process, but are still from a reputable source, such as the Government of Canada or a respected non-governmental organization.

When theory emerges through inductive data analysis. The theoretical constructs are rooted, or grounded, in empirical observations from the data collection stage of the research process. 

This unit of analysis is the larger class of individuals the researcher wants to know more about. The group is the unit of analysis when your goal is to learn more about the dynamics of the group members and the features of the group as an entity in and of itself. A gang is an example of a unit of analysis at the group level.

Any negative impact connected to participation in a research study. Harm can be temporary, like feeling sad in an interview, or longer term, such as the lasting trauma experienced by some of the participants in the Stanford Prison Experiment. Harm can come in many forms, including physical, psychological (e.g., emotional distress, embarrassment), financial (e.g., job loss), social or reputational harm (e.g., loss of status or respect within the community), and legal harm (e.g., possibility of prosecution should confidentiality be broken). While most of the focus is on harms to participants, these harms can also be experienced by researchers.

When all elements within the population are different with respect to the relevant characteristics of interest, it is said to be heterogeneous and a larger, more strategically selected sample is needed.

When all elements within the population are similar with respect to the relevant characteristics of interest, it is said to be homogeneous and a small sample will suffice.

A statement about the relationship between two concepts that can be tested.  It is typically written in "if, then" format.

Any detail, alone or in conjunction with other details, which can identify a specific participant or their contributions. Information can be directly identifying, like a name or detailed physical description, or indirectly identifying, such as a phone number or street of residence.

Uncertainty or inconsistency in how individuals interpret and report identity-based questions.

One of the errors of casual human inquiry that involves allowing our own political, religious and/or ideological beliefs cloud our ability to examine an issue objectively.

One of the errors of casual human inquiry that involves claiming that an exception to a rule or established pattern is proof of that rule or pattern. The gambler’s fallacy is an example of illogical reasoning.

A qualitative research method that is often referred to as a conversation with purpose. The interviewer asks the respondent(s) questions, usually face-to-face, with the goal of capturing the interviewee’s own words. This method is particularly suited for complex or sensitive topics whereby the researcher is seeking in-depth data.

One of the errors of casual human inquiry that involves making observations in a non-systematic, non-deliberate way, leading to erroneous conclusions. The validity of eyewitness testimony is called into question because of inaccurate observations.

The variable manipulated by researchers in a research study – its variation is hypothesized to cause changes in the dependent variable being measured.

Empirical observations taken to represent the ideas we are interested in studying. Specifying indicators is the final step of the operationalization process.

A term that refers to the original people or species who lived in a place, such as the Americas before colonization.

Indigenous data sovereignty refers to "the fundamental rights of Indigenous Peoples' to control, access, interpret, manage, and collectively own data about their communities, lands, and cultures” (SFU, 2024).

One of the paradigms in the social sciences. It is centred on the concept of relationality, and it urges a decolonial and anticolonial approach within the social sciences. Cultural knowledge and oral tradition are paramount within this paradigm, as is social change.

Refers to diverse knowledge systems across different Indigenous communities based on their spiritual and cultural practices, ecological understanding of the land and intergenerational wisdom.

Refers to diverse knowledge systems across different Indigenous communities based on their spiritual and cultural practices, ecological understanding of the land and intergenerational wisdom.

Things we cannot see with the naked eye and require more complex assessment or inferences, such as place of birth or income.

This unit of analysis is the individual person the researcher wants to know more about. The individual is the most common unit of analysis in criminology studies, which typically seek to describe characteristics of individual offenders or victims. Victims of domestic violence are an example of a unit of analysis at the individual level.

A research approach that begins with the collection of data, then proceeds to the analysis of the data and eventually results in the generation of a general set of theoretical propositions. It can be described as moving from the specific (data) to the general (theory). The inductive approach to research typically employs qualitative methods. It can be used in combination with a deductive approach.

Statistics where we use our sample data to make inferences to a larger population from which our sample is drawn. This is based in probability theory.

This is achieved when participants make a decision about being involved in a particular research study based on being provided with full and complete information about the study and what they are being asked to do. Informed consent can be communicated in writing (e.g., signed document or email), verbally (e.g., stated at the beginning of an interview), or in other ways (e.g., handshake, remaining in a public space).

A type of reliability that refers to the degree to which different observers agree on what happened.

A type of reliability, also sometimes called internal consistency, that refers to the degree to which scores on each question of a scale are correlated with each other.

Refers specifically to whether observed effects within a study can confidently be attributed solely to manipulations made by researchers rather than other confounding factors.

Variables at this level of measurement can be rank ordered and the distance between ranks is known, but there is no true zero point.

When a closed-ended survey question has response options that are numeric and can be rank ordered. Ratio response options include the possible response of zero, making it possible to conduct certain statistical analyses. For example, it is possible that someone has committed zero crimes.

A qualitative research method that involves directly interacting with respondents and collecting qualitative data by asking questions to one or more people and recording responses.

The document containing questions or topics that the interviewer plans to cover during the course of a qualitative interview. It is referred to as a guide as it is not rigid, serving only as a reference of what they intend to cover.

Short notes one makes on the fly while in the field. 

Recording your reactions, emotional state, and personal experiences while conducting fieldwork.

Controlled experiments conducted in a structured environment where variables can be manipulated precisely, often yielding high internal validity but potentially low ecological validity.

The deeper, underlying meaning of a text or image that is not immediately apparent to those who examine it.

Questions that elicit a researcher-desired response.

The way in which attributes of a variable are related to one another. There are four levels of measurement: nominal, interval, ordinal and ratio.

A type of quantitative survey question where the respondents are asked to rate their opinion about given statements on a scale that ranges from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.”

A chart used to represent univariate distributions in a graphical format instead of a table. Line graphs are generally best for representing interval- or ratio-level data.

A way to organize and present main ideas and identify connections between and among literature on a particular topic; it is typically presented in a graphic or flow chart format to make sense of the overall trends and themes in a body of literature.

A comprehensive survey of what has been written about a particular topic, theory, or research question.

A research design where data are collected at multiple time points on the same or similar research question; this includes trend, cohort, and panel longitudinal designs.

A survey that is administered at more than one point in time, allowing changes in responses to be recorded. There are three types of longitudinal surveys: trend, panel, and cohort.

The surface-level reading of a text or image or what is easily observable to those who examine it.

Something a speaker says about something else while speaking that you want to mark and come back to later.

A measure of central tendency that represents the arithmetic average of an interval or ratio variable.

The process of describing and ascribing meaning to key facts, concepts, or other phenomena under investigation. This includes both conceptualization and operationalization.

Statistics that provide a measure of where participants cluster, the typical response or the average response in a variable. The three measures of central tendency are mode, median and mean.

Statistics that provide information on how responses on a variable differ from or are dispersed around a measure of central tendency. They compliment the measure of central tendency. The three measures of dispersion are range, variance and standard deviation.

A measure of central tendency that represents the midpoint in a distribution of an ordinal variable.

A method used to establish credibility in qualitative research. It typically involves collecting feedback from participants on transcripts, analysis at various stages of the research process, or drafts of final manuscripts or reports.

Notes that the researcher develops about their data regarding interpretation and relationships within the data. 

A type of secondary data analysis in which findings from published studies are combined and analyzed together; typically, such research takes a quantitative approach.

A research approach that combines qualitative and quantitative methods. While these methods have often been discussed as competing, they actually can be complementary, and the decision to combine methods should be based on the research question at hand and the data that exists to answer it.

A measure of central tendency that represents the most frequently occurring category of a nominal variable.

The researcher, or other individual, who is responsible for posing questions or topics and guiding the group discussion in a focus group while ensuring all participants have an opportunity to participate. The responses of focus group participants as well as interactions amongst group members are recorded and observed by the moderator.

Statistical tests that assess the extent of the relationship between three or more variables. Typically, we examine the impact of multiple independent variables on a single dependent variable.

A quality of our variable that means that all attributes are distinct and do not overlap. As such, no observation can be classified into more than one attribute. In the context of survey research, this means that the response options do not overlap and only one response option would apply.

A qualitative research method that examines how stories and personal accounts shape meaning, identity, and social reality.

A branch of science that deals with the physical world.

When two variables are related to one another and the directionality of that relationship is such that when found together, they change in the opposite directions. In other words, when one goes up, the other goes down or when one goes down, the other goes up.

A survey question that includes the words "no", "not", or "never". This question wording should be avoided in survey construction.

A survey question that includes the words "no", "not" or "never". This type of wording should be avoided in survey question construction.

This is the most basic level of measurement, and the attributes are only named, with no ranking of attributes. The variable “eye colour” is an example of a nominal-level variable.

When a closed-ended survey question has two or more response options that are words that cannot be rank ordered. Gender is an example of a nominal variable, with the nominal response options of male, female, transgender, etc.

A group used for comparison that is not randomly assigned, which may introduce bias and affect the validity of conclusions drawn from the study.

Sampling techniques that are relied on in inductive, qualitative research. The chances of any individual or entity being included in a study are not known when non-probability sampling techniques are used, and there is no sampling frame. The goals of representativeness and generalizability are not a concern with non-probability sampling. These techniques include convenience, quota sampling, purposive sampling, and snowball sampling.

The non-probability quota sampling technique used when the quotas are set at an equal number per category regardless of the proportion that group represents in the larger target population. For example, if the categories you choose are based on ethnic groups, all ethnic groups would have the same quota even though they are not equally represented in the target population.

One of the aspects of ontology that states that social entities exist independently of the social actors concerned with their existence.

The researcher observes a group but is not a member and only interacts indirectly with the group.

The study, theory or science of being. It is concerned with the nature of reality.

The process of organizing and labelling qualitative data to find patterns and themes without allowing any preconceived notions or ideas to guide the process. 

Qualitative interview questions that do not include possible response options but rather require the interviewee to provide responses in their own words.

A precise definition of how a variable or concept is to be measured.

The process of explaining precisely how a concept will be measured. In other words, what exact operations will be performed (e.g., what observation will be made or what survey question will be asked) to measure that concept.

Variables at this level of measurement are like nominal variables in that they are categories, but they can be rank ordered. The distance between ranks is not known.

When a closed-ended survey question has two or more response options that can be rank ordered. For example, socioeconomic status can be ranked as low, middle and high. Note that no specific numeric value is assigned to each of the ranks at the ordinal level of measurement.

This unit of analysis is a more formal class of individuals the researcher wants to know more about. Like the group, the organization is the unit of analysis when your goal is to learn about the dynamics of the organization and the features of the organization in and of itself. Police detachments are an example of a unit of analysis at the organizational level.

Extremely high or low scores in a distribution that make the mean an inaccurate measure of central tendency when dealing with interval- or ratio-level data. These outliers positively or negatively skew data.

One of the errors of casual human inquiry that involves assuming that a few similar events are proof of a much larger pattern.

A type of longitudinal study where data are collected from the exact same people at multiple time points.

A longitudinal survey administered at more than one point in time to the exact same people, thus allowing individual changes to be recorded.

A way of viewing the world or a frame of reference we use to organize our thoughts and observations. They are mental models we use to understand our human experiences. There are five paradigms in the social sciences

Also called participant mortality; when participants drop out of a longitudinal panel study for various reasons, including not wanting to continue, moving and not providing researchers with their new contact information, or death.

A role taken on by a field researcher that involves both participating in interactions and observing the phenomenon of interest in its natural setting.

The researcher observes a group by becoming a member, to the extent possible, establishing relationships and directly interacting with the group.

An approach where researchers and participants work together to understand a problem within the community and attempt to change it.

Also called scholarly or academic sources, peer-reviewed sources have undergone an evaluation and review process by other experts in the topic area for quality and the significance of the contribution to knowledge prior to publication.

The tendency for a pattern to occur at regular intervals in our sampling frame. If such a pattern exists, systematic random sampling should not be used.

A chart used to represent univariate distributions in a graphical format instead of a table. Pie charts are generally best to represent a small number of categories at the nominal or ordinal level.

A claim that one event, behaviour, or belief causes another is reasonable and makes sense.  For example, claiming that ice cream sales “cause” drowning deaths is not plausible, whereas claiming that the absence of personal floatation devices like lifejackets causes an increase in drowning deaths is plausible.

The large set of all the people, things or events one wants to learn more about in our research and from which the sample is drawn.

Also known as reflexivity statements, these are either written or verbal declarations of a researcher’s identity or background. Such statements can help researchers and others to identify or acknowledge biases or perspectives that the researcher may hold that affect their research. Statements can include information related to the person’s gender, ethnicity, class, and any other relevant social characteristics that can help others understand lenses through which the researcher may be interpreting their findings.

When two variables are related to one another and the directionality of that relationship is such that when found together, they change in the same direction. In other words, when one goes up the other also goes up or when when goes down the other also goes down.

One of the paradigms in the social sciences. It was introduced by French philosopher Auguste Comte. It holds that the creation of scientific knowledge should be restricted to what researchers can observe and measure, and it operates according to the principles of objectivity, knowability, and deductive logic. Biological theories of crime fall under the positivist paradigm.

A measurement taken after an experimental treatment has been administered that is used to assess any changes resulting from the intervention compared to pre-test measurements.

An experimental design where only post-test measurements are taken after administering treatments without pre-tests, simplifying analysis while still allowing for comparisons between groups.

A quasi-experimental design where groups are compared based on post-test results without random assignment; it is often used when randomization is impractical or unethical.

One of the paradigms in the social sciences. It asserts that truth in any form may or may not be knowable. Postmodernists see crime as a social construct resulting from complex interactions between individuals and that by studying a phenomenon or behaviour like crime, researchers are essentially creating crime by using human language to describe and investigate it. Cultural criminology is an example of a criminological theory within the postmodernism paradigm.

A measurement taken before an experimental treatment is administered – it serves as a baseline for assessing changes due to interventions during post-testing.

One aspect of criterion validity; it addresses whether a measure predicts things it should be able to predict in the future.

Data sources used in research that are accessed and used by the researcher in their original and raw form.

Research data in the form of text or images in their original state, without having been modified, compiled, or analyzed by someone else.

The right to control information about yourself, including how information is collected, held, and disseminated. Expectations of privacy may differ based on situation, for example, lower expectations of privacy when in a public space and higher expectations of privacy in your own home. Privacy is closely connected to consent and confidentiality.

Sampling techniques that are relied on in deductive, quantitative research. The chances of any individual or entity being included in our study are known when probability sampling techniques are used and a sampling frame is available. The goal with these sampling techniques is to create a sample that is representative of the population and to obtain findings that are generalizable. These techniques include simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling, and multi-stage cluster sampling.

A request for additional information.

Used to encourage a speaker to speak about a topic.

The non-probability quota sampling technique used when the quotas per category are set at a number that is equal to the proportion that group represents in the larger target population. For example, if the categories you choose are based on ethnic groups and one ethnic group represents 30% of the target population, then the quota for that ethnic group category would be 30% of the sample.

Fictitious names or aliases that people adopt for themselves for a particular purpose. In the context of research, a researcher may ask a participant to select an alias that is used to organize research materials associated with the participant without identifying the participant. 

Also sometimes called judgmental sampling, this is a non-probability sampling technique that involves identifying selection criteria and then hand-selecting our sample based on these criteria. For example, we may seek out the participation of known experts on a particular topic so we contact these experts as we know they possess the unique knowledge we hope to explore.

A research method that relies on identifying themes and examining the underlying meaning of those themes in textual data so they can be contextualized.

Research methods that involve the collection of non-numerical data, such as words and pictures. Interviews, focus groups, and field research are examples of qualitative methods. Once data are collected, they require analysis strategies such as thematic coding, which involves allowing themes to emerge from the data. Qualitative methods are interpretive and inductive in nature.

A research method that relies on assigning numerical values to information in the texts under study so they can be analyzed using various statistical procedures.

Research methods that involve the collection of numerical data. Survey research and experiments are examples of quantitative methods. The data collected as a result of these quantitative methods requires statistical analysis and is typically presented in graphs and charts. Quantitative methods are positivist and deductive in nature.

Research designs that resemble true experiments but lack random assignment – they are useful when ethical or practical considerations prevent randomization.

The non-probability sampling technique we use when we have categories within our population of interest and we set a predetermined number of observations, or a quota, per category to include in our study. These categories could be, for example, ethnic groups, genders, or age groups. So long as the observation is within that category, it can be included, and once that number of observations is reached, the quota is satisfied for that category. Quota sampling can be either proportional or non-proportional.

The process of assigning participants randomly to different groups (experimental or control) within an experiment to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any condition.

A core principle of probability sampling, random selection refers to a mathematical process whereby chance governs the selection process and every sampling element has an equal probability of being selected.

A website resource that contains a random number generator to assist researchers and students to create a random number table.

A measure of dispersion that represents the difference between the highest and lowest observed value in a variable.

Variables with this level of measurement can be rank ordered, the distance between the ranks is known, and there is also a true zero point. As such, more sophisticated analyses can be conducted with variables at the ratio level.

The effect derived from contact/communication between the researcher and research participant. Research that involves close or prolonged interaction between the researcher and participant is expected to increase reactivity, whereas research that does not involve such contact is expected to minimize reactivity.

Inaccurate or incomplete memory of past events or behaviours.

The act of giving something back to research participants and the research community, rather than simply extracting data from them, as has been the historical tendency. It is a concept grounded in relationships and based on trust and openness, and is integral in research with Indigenous peoples.

Examining one's own reactions, thoughts, feelings, and social position in regard to your research.

The assumption that abstract concepts exist in some concrete, tangible way.

Being responsible both for participants but also communities at large, the environment, the land, homelands, ancestors, and lived history.

The consistency and stability of measurement results over time. Reliable measures yield similar outcomes under consistent conditions across different instances of testing.

One of the key concepts of sampling, it refers to the extent to which our sample resembles the population from which it is drawn. A representative sample is one that captures the variation that exists in the population.

A question that can be answered using empirical and social scientific knowledge. Strong research questions should be phrased as a question, clearly focused, have more than one plausible answer (not a yes/no question), and consider multiple concepts or variables.

Research conducted using sharing or talking circles.

The answer options that respondents can select from when responding to quantitative, closed-ended survey questions

The percentage of responses you receive relative to the number of surveys you distribute.

A type of research design where people are asked about an event or experience in their past.

A subset of the larger target population that is directly included in our research and from which we collect observations.

The process of selecting a subset of the population to include in your study.

A concern about the potential of a sample not being representative of the population from which it is drawn.

The difference in results or outcomes between the sample and a population.

An exhaustive and complete list of all the possible units of analysis that could theoretically be included in our study from the larger population. The sampling frame is a necessary part of probability sampling.

The point at which no new codes or themes are being produced.

A composite measure of a variable or construct composed of multiple indicators with numerical scores assigned to response categories. For example, the PCL-R is a scale with 20 related items, scored 0 to 3, measuring different aspects of the construct of psychopathy.

The commitment to publicly and freely share the products, means and results of our research with other researchers as well as with communities at large.

Research data in the form of text or images that have already been compiled, summarized, or analyzed by someone else.

One of the errors of casual human inquiry that involves only paying attention to an established pattern of events while ignoring any information that suggests otherwise.

A survey that is completed by the respondent on their own time, either in hard copy or online.

The amount of information a person reveals about themselves.

A type of qualitative interview format whereby the interviewer asks a series of open-ended questions but is not bound by the wording or ordering of questions from one interview to the next.

A probability sampling technique that starts with a sampling frame, involves sequentially numbering all units in the population and then uses a set of randomly generated numbers to choose the units to include in the sample. All units of the population have an equal and known probability of being included.

Risk that comes from working in a dangerous situation, such as getting shot as a soldier.

The non-probability sampling technique we use when our population of interest is difficult to access. Each participant is asked to identify other participants who may be willing to partake in our research.

This unit of analysis is the product of social beings and their behaviour the researcher wants to know more about. These are inanimate objects, such as news articles.

One of the paradigms in the social sciences. It posits that social context and interactions shape individual and social realities and that there is no objective reality or truth out there waiting to be discovered. It is the opposite of positivism. Labelling theory is an example of a theory that falls under the social constructionist paradigm.

Occurs when people attempt to present a better image of themselves than might really be the case.

A branch of science that studies human societies and social relationships.

An advanced experimental design involving four groups – two receiving pre-tests and two not – allowing researchers to independently assess both pre-test effects and treatment impacts.

A relationship in which an association between two variables appears to be causal but can in fact be explained by some third variable. For example, the increase in drowning deaths in the summer may be connected to hot weather and more people at the beach rather than an increase in ice cream sales.

A measure of dispersion that represents the square-root of the average of the squared deviations from the mean. This value is transformed back in the original units of the variable so it can be interpreted.

A website resource that contains a random number generator to assist researchers and students to create a random number table.

Mutually exclusive subgroups or categories in our population from which samples are drawn using simple random sampling.

A probability sampling technique that involves dividing the target population into categories, or strata, listing all units within the strata (devising the sampling frame) and then randomly selecting within each of the strata. This technique ensures that populations that are not well represented in the population and may in fact not be included at all if a simple random sampling technique is used, are indeed included and well represented in the sample.

Research that focuses on community capacities rather than deficits.

A perspective which focuses on the inherent strengths, capabilities and resources of individuals and communities in responding to challenges that they may be facing. This is typically referred to in the context of research with or on Indigeous peoples.

One of the aspects of ontology. It means that social phenomena are created from the perceptions and actions of the social actors who are concerned with their existence.

A method of collecting data by asking people questions, typically through questionnaires, to gather information about their attitudes, behaviours, or personal characteristics.

A probability sampling technique that starts with a sampling frame and involves dividing the number of units in the population by the desired number of units for the sample. A number within that interval range is then randomly chosen as the starting point, and every kth unit is selected until the desired sample size is reached. For example, if the population is 1000 and the desired sample is 100, then the interval is 1 to 10 (1000/100). If we randomly select the starting point between 1 and 10 of “3", then we choose every 10th unit after that (3, 13, 23, 33, 43, etc.).

A criterion for determining causality where a cause must come before its effect in time.

A type of reliability that refers to how consistent results will be when a measure is given multiple times. Ideally, any changes in the results would be due to a change or intervening factor between the tests.

The natural setting in which a phenomenon of interest exists and a field researcher is immersed during the course of their research.

A qualitative method for identifying, analyzing, and interpreting patterns (themes) within data.

Creating visual maps of candidate themes to explore relationships, interconnections, and meanings between candidate themes.

A level of analysis that is abstract and based on generalizable ideas. This level of analysis involves outlining how ideas and concepts are related to one another to explain some social phenomenon or behaviour.

A set of systematically interrelated ideas intended to explain a social phenomenon or behaviour. Theories are narrower and more focused than a paradigm. Theories help us answer the “why” and “how” questions we often have about the patterns we observe in social life. Social disorganization theory is an example of a theory in criminology.

An area of interest or a subject the researcher might be interested in learning more about.

Knowledge acquired through generations regarding local ecosystems and species interactions; it informs participatory approaches within criminological research contexts related to environmental crime or justice issues.

The process of converting audio data into written form, verbatim, while also making note of who each speaker was as well as nonverbal cues.  

A criterion of trustworthiness in qualitative research that refers to the degree to which qualitative research findings can be applied in other settings or contexts.

The need to recognize a participant’s life experience so they are not re-traumatized by the research.

A type of longitudinal study where data are collected over multiple time points on/with the same question(s) but not necessarily from the same participants; the General Social Survey is a good example in which the same questions are asked of different Canadians to assess change over time.

A longitudinal survey administered at more than one point in time to the same target population with the goal of examining overall changes in that population. The respondents are not necessarily the same at each point in time.

Research designs characterized by the random assignment and manipulation of independent variables, enabling strong causal inference regarding relationships among variables studied.

Trustworthiness refers to the degree of confidence in data, interpretation, and methods used to ensure the quality of a study.

A way of viewing the world that considers both Indigenous and Western knowledges and worldviews.

The unit we hope to learn more about through the course of our research. The research question determines the unit of analysis. The four units of analysis relevant for criminologists are individual, group, organization, and social artifact.

The person or thing you actually collect data from in your study. It is sometimes, but not always, the same as the unit of analysis.

Statistics on one variable in our sample, such as the mean and standard deviation.

Also referred to as nonreactive method – a research approach characterized by the lack of contact between the researcher and research participant such that the researcher does not intrude into the lives of those they are studying, and the participant does not react in a particular way due to the presence or influence of the researcher.

The degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure; it encompasses various forms such as internal validity (the accuracy within the study) and external validity (generalizability).

Maintaining impartiality and objectivity. 

The indicators a researcher develops to measure abstract concepts pertinent to their study. It is something with a quantity or quality that can vary.

A measure of dispersion that represents the average of the squared deviations from the mean. This value is in squared units so it is difficult to interpret as a measure of dispersion.

When participants exercise free will in choosing to be studied by researchers. In other words, it is their choice to participate in the research study and they are not compelled to do so by other factors.

A data distortion that happens when the people that volunteer are somehow different than the rest of the general population.

A compromised ability to make choices in the context of research, either because of medical reasons (e.g., dementia), age (e.g., children), or social reasons (e.g., limited access to rights or power). Vulnerability can also refer to groups who have historically been exploited or excluded from research, such as prisoners, women, and Indigenous Peoples.

A system of acquiring knowledge primarily based on logic, objectivity, and empirical observation.