Relationship violence is any form of physical, emotional, spiritual and financial abuse, negative social control or coercion that is suffered by anyone who has a bond or relationship with the offender(s). In the literature, we find words such as intimate partner violence (IPV), interpersonal violence (IVP), neglect, dating violence, family violence, battery, child neglect, child abuse, bullying, seniors or elder abuse, stalking, cyberbullying, strangulation, technology-facilitated coercive control, honour killing, gang violence, social isolation, circulation of intimate images and workplace violence. Violence can be perpetrated by persons in opposite-sex relationships (Carney et al., 2007), within same-sex relationships (Rollè et al., 2018) and in relationships in which the victim is transgender (The Scottish Trans Alliance, 2010). Relationship violence is a result of multiple impacts such as taken for granted inequalities, policies and practices that accept sexism, racism, xenophobia, homophobia and ageism. It can span the entire age spectrum and it may start in-utero and end with the death of the victim.

RV can occur anywhere and in post-secondary institutions, it can be between employees or visitors and employees, between students and employees and between students. The survivors/victims can be students, employees or visitors. This chapter focuses on RV on post-secondary campuses and mostly on sexual assault of students. For information about violence against international students see chapter 24.

RV Against Post-Secondary Students

Post-secondary institutions are meant to be safe havens for learning, growth, and development. However, they can also be environments where various forms of abuse occur, affecting students’ physical, emotional, sexual, psychological and financial well-being. This chapter explores the scope and consequences of  abuse prevalent in colleges and universities, their impact on students, and strategies for prevention and intervention

Scope and Consequences

Relationship violence prevalence on campuses and at institutions of higher learning is difficult to estimate due to the variations in the design of different surveys (see chapter 5). There is also variation in how each institution may define RV however, there is some agreement that students, like other sectors of the population, are at risk and do experience RV (Cantor et al., 2019; Fass et al., 2008; Knowledge Networks 2011; Sinozich & Langton, 2014).

According to Thurrott (2023) nearly one in three women in post-secondary institutions have experienced dating abuse and 43% by a partner. Some earlier studies on female students suggest the rate of RV is 1 in 4 in both Canada and the US (Dekeseredy & Kelly, 1993; Koss et al., 1987; Fisher et al., 2000). However, 2019 data shows 71% of students (45% women and 32% men) at post-secondary institutions either witnessed or experienced unwanted sexualized behaviors (Burczycka, 2020). The general results for Canadian women are 39% and men 35% since age 15 (Cotter & Savage , 2019). In most cases the perpetrators were fellow students in 80% of the cases for women and 86% of the cases for men and it was similar if students were in a program made up mostly of one gender or the other. The unwanted sexualized behaviors include:

Inappropriate verbal or non-verbal communication:

• Sexual jokes
• Unwanted sexual attention, such as whistles, calls, etc.
• Inappropriate sexual comments about appearance or body
• Inappropriate discussion about sex life

Sexually explicit materials:

• Displaying, showing, or sending sexually explicit messages or materials
• Taking or posting inappropriate or sexually suggestive photos or videos
  of any student without consent
• Unwanted physical contact or suggested sexual relations
• Indecent exposure or inappropriate display of body parts in a sexual manner
• Repeated pressure from the same person for dates or sexual relationships
• Unwelcome physical contact or getting too close
• Someone being offered personal benefits for engaging in sexual activity or being mistreated for not engaging in sexual activity (Burczycka, 2019)

Certain groups have a higher risk of being victimized “Indigenous, 2SLGBTQIA+, people with disabilities, minorities, and international students are at higher risk of sexual violence” and one-third of first-year students have experienced RV (Magnussen & Shanker, 2019, p. 93) and 10% of the women in Canadian universities reported being assaulted in 2019 (Burczycka, 2020). These are the same groups that are at greater risk in the general population and the rates of RV are similar to the general population (see chapter 5). Risk is three times more for Indigenous women compared to non-Indigenous women and six times more for those who do not identify as heterosexual compared to heterosexual women, nine times higher for single women compared to partnered women, two times higher for those with disabilities compared to those without disabilities and three times higher for those who experienced childhood sexual abuse compared to those who did not (Student Leaders, 2022). As well, those aged 15-24 have the highest rate of abuse (47%). As stated in earlier chapters, RV is normalized and tolerated in many contexts including on university campuses. As well, structural violence contributes to relationship violence.  An example is that couple is out walking after a late date looking for a place to hang out but there are no bars or restaurants open on campus. As a result, hey end up in the dormitory.  In the dormitory is a desk, chair and bed so they both sit on a twin bed in close proximity. Being on a bed, ideas of what you do on a bed go through their minds including “making out.” The young female recognizes this is awkward but she really likes this young man. They start hugging and kissing and one think lead to another and they have sex. She did not want to but she couldn’t say no but tenses up. Feeling the reaction he thinks, no means yes and continues. The female feels violated but thinks that she needs to comply. This gives her psychological and physical symptoms. This experience may have been avoided if there was another place for the couple to hang out. As well, 60% young adults find it difficult to recognize abuse (domesticshelters.org)

RV results in psychological and emotional consequences, and chronic health challenges (see chapter 5). Much of what has been said in other chapters, applies to this population depending on their characteristics (see chapter 1 for chapter summaries) but there are some specific factors to consider.

Molyen et al. (2019) reviewed the National College Health Assessment data collected from students from 474 campuses from 2011-2014 and looked for correlations between factors on campus and incidences of IPV and sexual assault. Using regression analysis they found that sexual assault was correlated with the following factors: binge drinking, younger mean age and higher rates of students reporting experiencing discrimination. IPV was correlated with a higher number of intimate partners, lower binge drinking, older mean age and a higher number of part-time students. Please note correlation does not mean causation, correlation means there is a statistically significant relationship between factors.

Sexual assault of post-secondary students results in many similar impacts as with other groups but plays out in relation to the ability to study, some impacts for women survivors in post-secondary are:

 …common trauma symptoms such as low mood, anxiety, preoccupation, and concentration difficulties as leading to reduced engagement in classes, difficulties completing assignments, and dropping courses. They described feeling physically unsafe—both with regards to proximity to the specific perpetrator and to males in general—as leading to missing classes; participating less in class discussions; avoiding courses, events, and social engagements involving males or occurring at night; requesting less academic help from male professors and teaching assistants; and even considering changes in study field or career. They also described important interactions among difficulties accessing support or services, stigma, increased apathy and changed attitudes about their own educational and career futures, which in turn may also have compounded academic performance (Quinlan et al., 2017, p. 37)

RV can lead to academic challenges and decreased belonging and sense of community (Gezinski et al., 2024). As well, physical health impacts from sexual abuse can be: sexually-transmitted diseases, vaginal bleeding and infections, fibroids, decreased sexual drive, pain during intercourse, urinary tract infections. RV has impacts on mental health including symptoms consistent with PTSD (Burczycka, 2020).

Post-Secondary Campus Culture

Abuse culture on campuses often involves a combination of factors, including power dynamics, peer pressure, and a lack of awareness or education about consent and healthy relationships.  Accepting hazing bullying, and sexual harassment can normalize this culture on campuses.

Universities, like other organizations, need to challenge attitudes that accept violence and inequities. In Canada, we remember the misogynist massacre of 14 female engineering students at l’École Polytechnique de Montréal in 1989. This is not the only instance of ‘rape culture’ on Canada’s campuses. In the last two decades, we have heard of other incidents across Canada:

• In 2013 at St Mary’s University student president resigned for a chant about consensual sex with underage girls. It resulted in a Task Force on how to prevent sexual violence and create safer campuses.
• At UBC, a few days after the incident at St. Mary’s University,  a similar chant was heard that had apparently been used for over 20 years.  This resulted in the establishment of a task force at UBC on Intersectional Gender-Based Violence and Aboriginal Stereotypes to recommend actions.
• At Lakehead University later the same year, a student went to the media and stated she had been assaulted on campus by a student the year before. This resulted in a task force at Lakehead University. whose goal was to address sexual violence and recommend policy change.
• In 2014, a female dental student at Dalhousie University told her administration that a male dental student’s Facebook group was promoting sexual violence against the female dental students and she was told by the administration not to file a formal complaint. The snapshots of the Facebook messages were posted on social media which resulted in a petition to expel the student. The petition launched in December 2015 obtained over 50,000 signatures by mid-January. The pressure led to the students being expelled from their regular offerings but being able to take the courses online. While professional dental associations asked for the names of the 13 male students in the Facebook group, the university administration failed to provide the names citing privacy and allowed the students to graduate. Fourth-year female dental students wrote an open letter to the president that resulted in a task force.

Many stories have been collected about abuse on campuses in the United States, visit the Colorado State University Survivor and Feminist Education Center to read first hand experience of students who were abused. These stories highlight challenges faced by survivors and the need for support services.

Over the years a number of task forces have been set up across universities in Canada and the United States and policies written, but RV persists. Survivors on campuses, just as others around the world, hesitate to report for similar reasons (see chapter 8) From the general Canadian survey, it is discovered that less than 10% of students who experienced sexual abuse reported the abuse because:

• They did not know the process
• They did not trust how their case would be handled (Burczycka, 2020)

For students, the slow response from university administrations creates another barrier to reporting. Universities need to act quickly and be proactive to prevent sexual assault and other violations.

In 2022, student leaders from 20 post-secondary institutions and national organizations in Canada released a 10-point action plan Our Campus our Safety. This plan calls for mandatory sexual violence prevention training, accessible academic accommodations for survivors and trauma informed practices for handling complaints.

Actions

Some provinces introduced legislation to address RV on campuses. For example, BC passed Bill 23: Sexual Violence and Misconduct Policy requiring all post-secondary institutions to have a policy on sexual misconduct and develop the complaint process and evaluate it on a three-year cycle. Similar bills were passed in other provinces – Manitoba passed Bill 15: The Sexual Violence Awareness and Prevention Act, and Ontario passed Ontario  Bill 132: The Sexual Violence and Harassment Action Plan Act [PDF]. BC’s bill requires that data be reported to the public and Manitoba’s bill also addresses minority groups. These have resulted in policies and prevention programs in universities/colleges being established, some universities have also established specific sexual violence units whilst others have only policy statements.

To be effective, policies need clear procedures that allow for investigation and for confidential and anonymous reporting, services for survivors (Gonzales et al., 2005) that are student-centred, include assaults when students are off-campus, allow for data collection and evaluation and are easily communicated (Gunraj et al., 2014; Gonzales et al., 2005). While the legislation addresses violence against students, good policies should also address all employees and visitors to the campus, define consent and be developed with students (Gunraj et al., 2014). Policies also need to be resourced, frequently reviewed and include student and staff input.

Sexual assault complaints can be reported to university administration and/or to the police, only reporting to the police may lead to a criminal trial.

When addressing violence, survivors usually want offender accountability and support. As with the incident at Dalhousie mentioned above, post-secondary institutions are reluctant to expel perpetrators, yet if there was an incidence of plagiarism, immediate expulsion may be a consequence in many institutions. There is a public reporting requirement in BC and the University of British Columbia (UBC) the largest university in BC, had sexual assault statistics on its campus security website, but removed them. From CBC it is learned that reporting of sexual misconduct increased 83% in one year (2021=2022) from 30 to 55 cases. This may because there is more awareness partly due to increase social media and movements such as #MeToo, students are more comfortable reporting as it can be done online or the culture of discouraging students not to file a formal report has changes. Quinlan et al. (2017) report that students are encouraged not to file formal complaints. To learn about the sexual assault policies/responses, visit the UBC Sexual Violence Prevention and Response Office.

Post-secondary institutions have developed task forces and policies on RV consent, reporting and investigation. For example, Simon Fraser University (SFU) in BC has developed videos on consent: Consent Matters: Busting the myth of Sexual Violence and Promoting a Culture of Consent in SFU Residence. Kwantlen Polytechnic University (KPU) also in BC has a policy (2023) that addresses all those who work and study at KPU: SR14 Sexual Violence and Misconduct Policy [PDF]. Student Rights and Responsibilities Office at KPU is responsible for creating policies and resources for sexual violence and misconduct. They have created an annoymous reporting process. From looking at various university websites, there is some specialized support services at post-secondary institutions and campus security seems to be tasked with responding to incidents on campus. This is hopefully because 4 years ago, most universities did not have anything. We are not sure if campus security has the training to respond to RV and sexual assault. Post-secondary institutions in the Vancouver Lower Mainland may consider either partnering with their local health authorities, RV service agencies or with the SMART program like the one at Surrey Women’s Centre (discussed in chapter 10). We agree with Quinlan et al. (2017) that post-secondary institutions (PSI) need to have partnerships where community members are equally valued and maybe even provided compensation to work with PSI’s (see chapter 6, for NEVR’s action model). As a minimum, campus security, if they remain the first call, need to have training on addressing RV situations.

In 2022, student leaders put forward calls to action for post secondary institutions in Canada.

1. Create and implement sustainable well-funded campus-wide education plans – prevention education and policies are the key
2. Apply Trauma-Informed Practices, Procedural Fairness, and Harm Reduction Principles to All Sexual Violence Complaint Processes – offer an alternative non-adjudicative means to justice.
3. Ensure Accessible Academic Accommodations/Considerations for People Affected by Sexual Violence – this needs to be a low barrier process
4. Centre Survivor Voices in Institutional Policy Making in Meaningful Ways – need stand alone policies and dedicated offices.
5. Set Provincial Standards for Campus Sexual Violence Data Collection in Collaboration with Key Stakeholders – use campus wide climate surveys and make results available to the public.
6. Create and Strengthen Provincial & Territorial Legislative and Regulatory Frameworks to Address and Prevent Sexual Violence on Campus – develop mandatory legislation and policies and limit Non-Disclosure Agreements.
7. Build Provincial/Territorial Advisory Committees on Campus Sexual Violence with Paid Student Representation – this allows for participation by all and not only those who are economically stable
8. Ensure Sustainable Funding for Community Sexual Assault Centres and Postsecondary Institution Sexual Assault Services – provinces need to fund thes centres. BC commited $10 million in 2023 in it Gender Based Violence Plan
9. Set a National Standard for How Postsecondary Institutions Should Address, Prevent, and Respond to Sexual Violence on Campus – this would provide benchmarks to motivate institutions
10. Ensure That Addressing Campus Sexual Violence is Prioritized in the National Action Plan on Gender-Based Violence – students participated in the consulations

A two year funded project the Courage to Act‘s goals are to address and prevent gender-based violence on post-secondary campuses in Canada by working collaboratively with communities to create national resources and strategies. In 2019, they released a comprehensive report, a must read for anyone wanting to address violence on campuses, Courage to Act: Developing a National Framework to Address and Prevent Gender-Based Violence [PDF]. As well, this organization has a number of helpful webinars and educational toolkits, communities of practice, and a comprehensive list of publications.

As well, METRAC, an organization that works to eliminate gender-based violence has created a safety audit (safety video) that may be used by Canadian Universities (METRAC, n.d.). You will find how administration, faculty, staff and students (all stakeholders) can work together. METRAC helps take action on campuses from assessment to report writing, they also conduct audits of campuses to inform policy and practice.

For prevention, we suggest bystander programs. One with some success in universities is the Green Dot program. It was most implemented by Carleton University in Canada. NEVR has been promoting a theory-based program, Violence Intervention Program that can be downloaded for free. As well, EVABC has the Be More than a Bystander.

The United Nations Global Programme for the Implementation of the Doha Declaration created the University Module series on Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime [UNODC], 2020). NEVR member Yvon Dandurand was part of the United Nations Team that created these modules using the best available evidence and expert knowledge. The modules provide lectures, slides, in-class exercises for university faculty to use free of charge to combat injustices.

Conclusion

Just like RV in the general population more confidential and cross-cultural resources and services need to be available for those who are on post-secondary campuses. As well, survivors need to be assisted using a cultural safety and humility approach (see chapter 6) and be allowed to report anonymously and get assistance. Post-secondary institutions need step by step investigation processes that are clearly articulated and communicated to all stakeholders and available on websites (see the Courage to Act report for processes). Post-secondary institutions also need to develop policies that are flexible to support a survivor’s ongoing studies and life on campus, for instance, providing non-punitive study leave, permitting late course withdrawal, and offering alternative modes of learning.

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