References

Barrett, B. J., Fitzgerald, A. J., Stevenson, R., & Cheung, C. H. (2017). Animal maltreatment as a risk marker of more frequent and severe forms of intimate partner violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(24-25), 5131-5156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517719542

Barker, J. (2018). Canadian female offenders. In J. Barker & D. S. Tavcer (Eds.), Women and the criminal justice system: A Canadian perspective (2nd ed., pp. 63-90). Emond.

Barrett, B. J., Fitzgerald, A., Peirone, A., Stevenson, R., & Cheung, C. H. (2018). Help-seeking among abused women with pets: Evidence from a Canadian sample. Violence and Victims, 33(4), 604–626. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.VV-D-17-00072

Beaudette, J., Cheverie, M., & Gobeil, R. (2014, October). Aboriginal women: Profile and changing population. Correctional Service of Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2016/scc-csc/PS83-3-341-eng.pdf

Belknap, J. (2004). Meda Chesney-Lind: The mother of feminist criminology. Women and Criminal Justice, 15(2), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1300/J012v15n02_01

Belknap, J. (2015). The invisible woman: Gender, crime, and justice. (4th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Boyce, J. (2016). Victimization of Aboriginal people in Canada, 2014 (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2016001/article/14631-eng.htm

Bill C-16, An Act to amend certain Acts in relation to criminal and correctional matters (child protection, gender-based violence, delays and other measures), 1st Sess, 45th Parl, 2025-2026. (Assented to 18 June 2026).

Britton, D. M. (2000). Feminism in criminology: Engendering the outlaw. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 571(1), 57–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271620057100105

Brown, G. P., Baker, J., McMillan, K., Norman, R., Derkzen, D., Stewart, L. A., & Wardrop, K. (2018, October). Prevalence of mental disorder among federally sentenced women offenders: In-custody and intake samples (Report No. R-420). Correctional Service Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/scc-csc/PS83-3-420-eng.pdf

Bruckert, C., & Law, T. (2018). Women and gendered violence in Canada: An intersectional approach. University of Toronto Press.

Chesney-Lind, M. (2020). Feminist criminology in an era of misogyny. Criminology, 58(3), 407–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9125.12247

Chesney-Lind, M., & Faith, K. (2001). What about feminism? Engendering theory-making in criminology. Explaining Criminals and Crime, 287-302.

Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, L. (2004). The female offender: Girls, women, and crime (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.

Chih, C., Wilson-Yang, J. Q., Dhaliwal, K., Khatoon, M., Redman, N., Malone, R., Islam, S., & Persad, Y. (2020). Health and well-being among racialized trans and non-binary people in Canada. Trans PULSE Canada. https://transpulsecanada.ca/research-type/reports [1, 2]

Closson, K., Boyce, S. C., Johns, N., Inwards-Breland, D. J., Thomas, E. E., & Raj, A. (2024). Physical, sexual, and intimate partner violence among transgender and gender-diverse individuals. JAMA Network Open, 7(6), e2419137. http://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.19137

Cloward, R. A., & Ohlin, L. E. (1960). Delinquency and opportunity: A theory of delinquent gangs. Free Press.

Comack, E. (1996). Women in trouble: Connecting women’s law violations to their histories of abuse. Fernwood.

Comack, E. (2018). Coming back to jail: Women, trauma, and criminalization. Fernwood.

Comack, E. (2020). Feminism and criminology. In R. Linden (Ed.), Criminology: A Canadian perspective (pp. 156-185). Nelson.

Comack, E., & Balfour, G. (2014). Criminalizing women gender and (in)justice in neoliberal times. Fernwood Publishing.

Connell, R. W. (2000). The men and the boys. University of California Press.

Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed.). University of California Press.

Conroy, S. (2024). Recent trends in police-reported clearance status of sexual assault and other violent crime in Canada, 2017-2022 (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2024001/article/00006-eng.htm

Conroy, S. (2021). Family violence in Canada: A statistical profile, 2019 (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00001-eng.htm

Conroy, S., & Cotter. A. (2017). Self-reported sexual assault in Canada, 2014 (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2017001/article/14842-eng.htm

Correctional Service Canada (CSC) (2025, August 8). Statistics and research on federally-sentenced women. https://www.canada.ca/en/correctional-service/programs/offenders/women/statistics-research-women-offenders.html

Cotter, A. (2024). Criminal justice outcomes of sexual assault in Canada, 2015 to 2019 (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2024001/article/00007-eng.htm

Cotter, A. (2021). Criminal victimization in Canada, 2019 (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00014-eng.htm

Cotter, A., & Savage, L. (2019). Gender-based violence and unwanted sexual behaviour in Canada, 2018: Initial findings from the Survey of Safety in Public and Private Spaces (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2019001/article/00017-eng.htm

Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(8), 139-167.

Crenshaw, K. (1995). Critical race theory: The key writings that formed the movement. New Press.

Delago, M. (2021, March 4). A brief look at the four waves of feminism. The Humanist. https://thehumanist.com/commentary/a-brief-look-at-the-four-waves-of-feminism/

Derkzen, D., Wardrop, K., & Wanamaker, K. (2018). Women offender assessment: Can gender-informed variables improve risk prediction? (Report No. R-413). Correctional Service of Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2019/scc-csc/PS83-3-413-eng.pdf

Deutschmann, L. B. (2007). Deviance and social control (4th ed.). Nelson Canada.

Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. P. (1979). Violence against wives. The Free Press.

Doolittle, R. (2017, Feb 3). Unfounded: Why police dismiss 1 in 5 sexual assault claims as baseless. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/investigations/unfounded-sexual-assault-canada-main/article33891309/

Fagan, E. (2026, April 27). Review finds intimate partner violence deaths preventable, calls on B.C. to do more. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/intimate-partner-violence-death-review-b-c-9.7178826

Fitzgerald, A. J., Barrett, B. J., Stevenson, R., & Cheung, C. H. (2019). Animal maltreatment in the context of intimate partner violence: A manifestation of power and control? Violence Against Women, 25(15), 1806–1828. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1077801218824993

Flores, A.R.,Wilson, B.D.M., Langton, L.L., Meyer, I.H. (2023). Violent victimization at the intersections of sexual orientation, gender identity, and race: National Crime Victimization Survey, 2017–2019. PLoS ONE, 18(2). e0281641. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0281641

Flynn, A., Cama, E., Powell, A., & Scott, A. J. (2023). Victim-blaming and image-based sexual abuse. Journal of Criminology, 56(1), 7-25. https://doi.org/10.1177/26338076221135327

Folsom, J. (2018). Women offenders and mental health. In J. Barker & D. S. Tavcer (Eds.), Women and the criminal justice system: A Canadian perspective (2nd ed., pp. 203-226). Emond.

Gerassi, L. (2015). A heated debate: Theoretical perspectives of sexual exploitation and sex work. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 42(4), 79–100.

Gobeil, R., Blanchette, K., & Stewart, L. (2016). A meta-analytic review of correctional interventions for women offenders:  Gender-neutral versus gender-informed approaches. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 43(3), 301-322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854815621100

Government of Canada (2026, July 16). About gender-based violence. https://www.canada.ca/en/women-gender-equality/gender-based-violence/about-gender-based-violence.html

Griner, S. B., Vamos, C. A., Thompson, E. L., Logan, R., Vázquez-Otero, C., & Daley, E. M. (2020). The intersection of gender identity and violence: Victimization experienced by transgender college students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(23-24), 5704-5725. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517723743

Hamilton, A., & Sinclair, M. (1996). Report of the Aboriginal justice inquiry of Manitoba: Public inquiry into the administration of justice and Aboriginal people. Winnipeg, MB: Aboriginal Justice Inquiry of Manitoba

Hankard, M., & Dillen, J. (Eds.). (2021). Red dresses on bare trees: Stories and reflections on missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls. J. Charleton Publishing.

Heidinger, L. (2021). Intimate partner violence: Experiences of First Nations, Metis and Inuit women in Canada, 2018 (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00007-eng.htm#r15

Hirschi, T. (1969). Cases of delinquency. University of California Press.

Jacobs, B. (2017). Decolonizing the violence against Indigenous women. In P. McFarlane & N. Schabus (Eds.), Whose land is it anyway? A manual for decolonization (pp. 47-51). Federation of Post-Secondary Educators of BC.

Jaffray, B. (2020). Experiences of violent victimization and unwanted sexual behaviours among gay, lesbian, bisexual and other sexual minority people, and the transgender population, in Canada, 2018 (Cat. no. 85-002-X). Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2020001/article/00009-eng.htm

Johnson, H. (1996). Dangerous domains: Violence against women in Canada. Nelson Canada.

Johnson, H., & Dawson, M. (2011). Violence against women in Canada: Research and policy perspectives. Oxford University Press.

Kendig, N. E., Cubitt, A., Moss, A., & Sevelius, J. (2019). Developing correctional policy, practice, and clinical care considerations for incarcerated transgender patients through collaborative stakeholder engagement. Journal of Correctional Health Care, 25(3), 277–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078345819857113

Kewley, S. (2017). Strength based approaches and protective factors from a criminological perspective. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 32, 11-18.

Langenderfer-Magruder, L., Whitfield, D. L., Walls, N. E., Kattari, S. K., & Ramos, D. (2016). Experiences of intimate partner violence and subsequent police reporting among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer adults in Colorado: Comparing rates of cisgender and transgender victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(5), 855–871. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514556767

Lord, C. (2026, June 17). Bailey’s Law: MP’s bill on intimate partner violence passed. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/baileys-law-intimate-partner-violence-9.7239450

Lazard, L., Capdevila, R., Turley, E. L., Gilfoyle, K., & Stavropoulou, N. (2025). Deepfake technology and gender-based violence: A scoping review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380251384271

Lyons, T., Krüsi, A., Pierre, L., Small, W. & Shannon, K. (2017a). The impact of construction and gentrification on an outdoor trans sex work environment: Violence, displacement and policing. Sexualities, 20(8), 881-903.

Lyons, T., Krüsi, A., Pierre, L., Kerr, T., Small, W. & Shannon, K. (2017b). Negotiating violence in the context of transphobia and criminalization: The experiences of trans sex workers in Vancouver, Canada. Qualitative Health Research, 27(2), 182-190.

Maynard, R. (2017). Policing Black lives: State violence in Canada from slavery to the present. Fernwood Publishing.

Monchalin, L. (2016). The colonial problem. University of Toronto Press.

Munro, E. (2013). Feminism: A fourth wave? Political Insight, 4(2), 22-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-9066.12021

O’Grady, W. (2018) Crime in Canadian context: Debates and controversies (4th ed.) Oxford University Press Canada.

Ray, I., Fulham, L., Simpson, A. I., Vogel, T., Gerritsen, C., Patel, K., & Jones, R. M. (2022). A comparison of men and women referred to provincial correctional mental health services in Ontario, Canada. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 32(5), 358–370. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.2263

Renzetti, C. M. (2018). Routledge handbook of critical criminology. Routledge.

Savage, L. (2019). Female offenders in Canada, 2017 (Cat. No. 85-002-X).  Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2019001/article/00001-eng.htm

Shdaimah, C. S., & Wiechelt, S. A. (2013). Crime and compassion: Women in prostitution at the intersection of criminality and victimization. International Review of Victimology, 19(1), 23–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269758012447217

Simpson, S. S. (1989). Feminist theory, crime and justice. Criminology (Beverly Hills), 27(4), 605–632. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1989.tb01048.x

Sollee, K. (2015, October 30). 6 things to know about 4th wave feminism. Bustle [online]. https://www.bustle.com/articles/119524-6-things-to-know-about-4th-wave-feminism

Statistics Canada. (2026, May 16). Integrated criminal court survey: Interactive dashboard on preliminary quarterly data (Cat. no. 71-607-X). https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/71-607-x/71-607-x2021016-eng.htm

Statistics Canada. (2025, July 22). Number of homicide victims and persons accused of homicide, by Indigenous identity, age group and gender (Cat. no. 71-607-X).  https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/71-607-x/71-607-x2021016-eng.htm

Statistics Canada. (2025, October 28). Trends in police-reported family violence and intimate partner violence in Canada, 2024. The Daily. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/251028/dq251028a-eng.htm

Statistics Canada (2023, June 21). Canada’s Indigenous population. StatsCAN Plus. https://www.statcan.gc.ca/o1/en/plus/3920-canadas-indigenous-population

Statistics Canada. (2022, April 20). Adult and youth correctional statistics, 2020/2021. The Daily. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/220420/dq220420c-eng.htm

Stevenson, R., Fitzgerald, A., & Barrett, B. J. (2018). Keeping pets safe in the context of intimate partner violence: Insights from domestic violence shelter staff in Canada. Affilia – Journal of Women and Social Work, 33(2), 236–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886109917747613

Stewart, L. A., Wardrop, K., Wilton, G., Thompson, J., Derkzen, D., & Motiuk, L. (2017). Reliability and validity of the dynamic factors identification and analysis – revised (Report no. R-395). Correctional Service of Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/scc-csc/PS83-3-395-eng.pdf

Suzack, C. (2015). Indigenous feminisms in Canada. NORA: Nordic Journal of Women’s Studies, 23(4), 261–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/08038740.2015.1104595

Tam, K., & Derkzen, D. (2014). Exposure to trauma among women offenders: A review of the literature (Report no. R-333). Correctional Service of Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2016/scc-csc/PS83-3-333-eng.pdf

Tavcer, D. S. (2018). Ashley Smith. In J. Barker & D. S. Tavcer (Eds.), Women and the criminal justice system: A Canadian perspective (2nd ed., pp. 171-172). Emond.

Tavcer, D. S. (2018). Prostitution and missing and murdered women and girls in Canada. In J. Barker & D. S. Tavcer (Eds.), Women and the criminal justice system: A Canadian perspective (2nd ed., pp. 255-275). Emond.

Tavcer, D. S., & Dekeseredy, W. (2018). Female crime: Theoretical perspectives. In J. Barker & D. S. Tavcer (Eds.), Women and the criminal justice system: A Canadian perspective (2nd ed., pp. 33-56). Emond.

Tavcer, D. S., Barker, J., & Dekeseredy, W. (2018). Experiences of female offenders: The intersection of victimization and (re)offending. In J. Barker & D. S. Tavcer (Eds.), Women and the criminal justice system: A Canadian perspective (2nd ed., pp. 173-201). Emond.

2 ‘shocking’ Grand Falls-Windsor shootings were acts of intimate parter violence, RCMP say. (2026, April 14). CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/rcmp-grand-falls-windsor-shootings-9.7162814

Ugwudike, P. (2015). An introduction to critical criminology. Bristol University Press. http://www.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1t89436

Wardrop, K. & Pardoel, K. (2018). Examining change in criminogenic need levels associated with correctional program participation among federally sentenced women (Report no. R-422). Correctional Service of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/correctional-service/corporate/library/research/report/422.html

Williams, F. P., & McShane, M. D. (2010). Criminological theory (Vol. 5). Pearson Education. http://www.loc.gov.proxy.lib.sfu.ca/catdir/toc/fy043/2003058220.html

Winterdyk, J. (2020). Canadian criminology. Oxford University Press.

World Health Organization. (2021). Violence against women.  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/violence-against-women.