Figure 3.1

Newsworthy criteria include:

• Stereotypes: Conforms to existing racial and/or gender stereotypes.
• Simple: Easy to understand.
• Out of the ordinary: Unexpected, rare, and unique stories favoured.
• Human appeal: Appeals to human characteristics (e.g. humour, sadness).
• Dramatic: Can be portrayed in a sensational way.
• Proximity: Geographically or culturally close to the audience.
• Spectacle: Presentation can include graphic imagery.
• Recurrent theme: Part of or similar to an existing story.
• Violence: Brutality or link of sex and violence.
• Elite people: Involves celebrities or powerful people/nations.
• Negative consequences: Negative events (such as crime) favoured over positive ones.
• “Ideal victim”: Sympathetic victim who conforms to a “perfect victim” stereotype (e.g. child).

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Figure 5.1

The 9-step search process includes: Planning, conceptualization, choice of method, sampling, data collection, operationalization, data processing, analysis, and application

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Figure 5.2

Here are the differences between the deductive and inductive approach to research:

1. Deductive approach
   1. Theory
   2. Hypothesis
   3. Observations
   4. Accept or reject hypothesis
2. Inductive approach
   1. Observations
   2. Hypothesis
   3. Theory
   4. Share theory

Deductive reasoning tends to use available factors, information, or knowledge to deduce a valid conclusion, whereas inductive reasoning involves making a generalisation from specific facts and observations.

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Figure 5.3

How to evaluate grey literature:

• Authorship: Not all gray literature will have a named author (or authors), but if they do, is the person an authority on the topic?
• Transparency: Of both methods and source of information.
• Objectivity: Is there bias?
• Accuracy: Are the facts/figures and dates cited and is the quality of evidence reliable and valid?
• Currency: How up to date is the information?

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Figure 5.4

Units of analysis are

1. Individuals
2. Groups
3. Organisations
4. Social Artifacts – books, photos, newspapers

For different analyses in the same study you may have different units of analysis.

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Figure 7.1

The image is a structured flowchart illustrating the General Aggression Model (GAM), which explains how aggression develops through a sequence of cognitive, affective, and arousal processes. The diagram is organized into three main sections labeled Inputs, Routes, and Outcomes, with directional arrows showing the progression of influence.

1. Inputs Section (Top Left)
   • This section contains two rectangular boxes labeled Person and Situation, placed side by side.
   • Both boxes have arrows pointing downward toward the next stage, indicating that personal characteristics (such as traits, attitudes, and biological factors) and situational variables (such as environmental cues or provocations) jointly influence the subsequent internal state.
2. Social Encounter Node (Top Right)
   • To the right of the Inputs section, there is an oval-shaped box labeled Social encounter.
   • A horizontal arrow connects this oval to the Inputs section, suggesting that social interactions feed into or are influenced by person and situation factors.
   • Another arrow loops back from later stages to this oval, indicating that outcomes of aggression can lead to new social encounters, creating a cyclical process.
3. Routes Section (Center)
   • Below the Inputs, a large rectangular box is labeled Present internal state: Affect, Cognition, Arousal.
   • Inside this box, three words—Affect, Cognition, and Arousal—are arranged diagonally and connected by dashed lines, signifying interrelated components of the internal state.
   • This section represents the psychological processes activated by inputs, including emotional reactions (affect), thought patterns (cognition), and physiological activation (arousal).
4. Outcomes Section (Bottom)
   • From the internal state box, a downward arrow leads to another rectangular box labeled Appraisal & decision processes.
   • This box splits into two arrows pointing toward two separate boxes:
     • Thoughtful action (on the right), representing deliberate, controlled responses.
     • Impulsive action (below), representing quick, less controlled reactions.
   • Both of these outcome boxes have arrows looping back toward the Social encounter oval, illustrating that actions influence future interactions and can perpetuate the cycle of aggression.
5. Visual Style and Layout
   • The diagram uses simple black lines and arrows on a white background, with all text in a clear serif font.
   • Boxes are rectangular except for the oval representing social encounters, which visually distinguishes it as a recurring contextual factor.
   • The overall flow is top-to-bottom, with feedback loops returning to the right side, emphasizing the dynamic and cyclical nature of aggression.

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Figure 9.2

Definitions favourable to crime include:

• “I can drive after five beers, no problem”
• “It’s not a crime if no one gets hurt.”
• “Never let anyone disrespect your family.”

Definitions not favourable to crime include:

• “It’s immoral to hurt someone else.”
• “I must rise above any insults and ignore it.”
• “My parents told me never to steel from someone.”

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Figure 9.3

A line graph titled “Relationship between Age & Crime” shows age (1–35 years) on the horizontal axis and level of delinquency (0–20) on the vertical axis. Delinquency is near zero in early childhood, begins to increase around ages 5–9, and rises sharply during adolescence. The highest point occurs around age 17 at approximately 18 on the delinquency scale. After age 17, delinquency declines steadily through the late teens and early twenties, then gradually decreases to low levels by the early 30s.

An annotation near the peak includes an arrow pointing to ages 16–18 with the text: “Most time spent with peers & peak importance of peer relationships,” indicating that peer influence is strongest at the same time delinquency reaches its highest level.

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Figure 9.4

A line graph plots age (1–35 years) on the horizontal axis and level of delinquency (0–20) on the vertical axis. Delinquency remains low in childhood, rises steadily during adolescence, and peaks around age 17–18. After this peak, delinquency declines sharply through the early 20s and continues to decrease gradually into the 30s.

To the right of the graph are icons representing social turning points, including a person, a ring (marriage), and a uniformed figure, with an upward arrow. These symbols suggest that life changes such as relationships and employment are associated with declining delinquency over time.

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Figure 16.1

A Venn diagram illustrates the relationship between gangs and organised crime. The left blue circle is labelled “Gangs – Street-based identity and culture.” Within the gangs-only section are: territorial activity, street-level presence, youth gang social networks, and relationships with older criminal actors.

The right yellow circle is labelled “Organised Crime – Highly organised activity not fitting ‘gang’ image.” Within the organised crime-only section are: fraud networks, money laundering operations, human trafficking networks, and corporate-facing criminal schemes.

The overlapping centre section labelled “Gang or gang-connected involvement in serious offences for material benefit” shows activities that may involve both gangs and organised crime: drug trafficking, firearms offences, extortion, and money laundering when carried out by or through a gang.

The diagram emphasises that while gangs and organised crime are distinct concepts, they can overlap through participation in serious profit-motivated criminal activities.

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Figure 18.2

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