Glossary

Arguments and research examining the harms of criminal justice institutions of police and prisons and the attempts to dismantle them and re-think systems to deal with transgression.

An unequal relation between academics where one group dominates while other groups are ignored or silenced.

The subset of locations that people directly experience during their activities, consisting of activity nodes where people spend nontrivial amounts of time carrying out activities and the paths (routes) between them.

A guilty action.

Laws which criminalise actions which seek to render the animal agriculture and use industries more transparent, specifically, criminalising undercover investigations and recording of animal agriculture activities, limiting whistleblowing, and otherwise interfering with normal business operations.

Referred to as the closest thing to a “fact” that exists in criminology is the relationship between age and crime. It states that criminal behaviour rapidly increases in adolescence until the late teenage years and quickly declines thereafter.

The ways in which the media play a role in determining which topics will receive the most attention and, thus, be deemed the most important for the audience to consider.

These are factors that are considered by the sentencing judge that would increase the crime’s severity and would result in a more severe punishment. Examples of aggravating factors include previous criminal record for the same crime; use of a weapon; offence motivated by bias, prejudice or hate (based on race, sex, religion, age, sexual orientation or gender identity, or any similar factor); offence was committed against the offender’s intimate partner or family; the offence was committed against a person under the age of eighteen; offence was committed for the benefit of, at the direction of, or in association with a criminal organisation; the offence was a terrorism offence; or the offence had significant impact on the victim’s health and financial situation.

Different variants of the same gene. For example, the gene for eye colour has alleles for brown, blue, green, grey or violet eyes.

The process of compiling and reviewing information, and then summarising and synthesising the data, often with the aide of statistical techniques, to reach a conclusion or explanation about the phenomenon under study.

A state in which the norms that regulate social life have broken down.

The idea that humans are the most important beings. In the context of green criminology, the exclusive focus is on humans as victims of crime and harm.

Behaviours that hurt or harm or lack concern for other people’s welfare. Usually, it includes behaviour considered to be disruptive or aggressive. However, such a concept is a social construct in that its definition is not an actual fact but relates to human opinion. Something that is antisocial in one context may not be in another. For example, violence is almost universally considered an antisocial behaviour but not in war.

A deeply ingrained and dysfunctional thought process that focuses on social exploitive, delinquent, and criminal behaviour, most commonly known due to the affected individual's lack of remorse for these behaviours. ASPD falls into 1 of 4 cluster B personality disorders within the DSM-5, which also includes narcissistic, borderline, and histrionic personality disorders.

When a person intentionally applies force, directly or indirectly, to another person without their consent.

Reverting back to a more primitive time, and criminologically was used to refer to Cesare Lombroso’s theory that criminals were more primitive than law-abiding citizens and that they exhibited certain marks or stigmata, such as the shape of their forehead, brows, ears and even tattoos, and the ways of writing and speaking.

A psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory concerning relationships between humans. The most important tenet is that young children need to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for normal social and emotional development. The theory was formulated by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby.

The over-emphasis of personal characteristics while devaluing environmental characteristics when judging others.

Our connection to our true, genuine self; the ability to show up as us, and connect with our feelings in a meaningful way.

The places of which a person is aware.

The idea that the way in which media present crime and justice issues is the opposite of the way in which these phenomena occur in real life.

A perspective that sees every species and being as equal in worth.

The belief that all criminal behaviour was due to biology alone. This was a theory of Cesare Lombroso in which he concluded that criminals were born to be criminals, therefore, could never be rehabilitated.

A multidisciplinary approach that seeks to understand criminal behaviour by examining the interactions between biological, psychological and sociological factors.

A member of the Black Panther Party, a political group founded to patrol African American neighbourhoods to protect citizens from police brutality. It evolved into a larger movement that sought to draw attention to the racial, political, and economic injustices perpetrated against African Americans.

Trying to force an individual to say or do something by threatening to punish them or reveal embarrassing information about them if they do not.

A group of laws passed by the state apparatus in the 18th and 19th centuries that enable the capitalist class to develop and control and expropriate the working class from the land and criminalise certain behaviours.

Entering someone else's property with the intention of committing an indictable offence.

An economic system characterised by (a) two social classes, private owners (of factories, goods, etc.) and workers, who exchange their labour for wages; (b) goods that are produced and sold for profit; and (c) competition between owners and between workers.

The multiple networks of diverse techniques and the power of normalisation to regulate human behaviour that we see in prison as it extends into the entire social body.

Feminism that advocates for police and prison responses to things like gendered violence, sexual assault, child abuse, etc.

When one variable is said to cause a specific effect, the two variables must at least be correlated, the cause must precede the effect, and other possible explanations must be eliminated.

When the change in one variable is the direct result of a change in another variable.

A molecule of DNA, made up of genes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, including two sex chromosomes, XX or XY.

Circles are a process often associated with restorative justice although the roots of this ancient practice lie in many Indigenous traditions around the world. The circle embodies and nurtures the state of inter-connectedness we exist in as human beings. The circle is a structured process that can be adapted for many different purposes such as relationship and community building, sharing, problem solving and decision making, celebration, or as a response to harm. The circle allows all participants the opportunity to speak about values or a specific topic. Circles create a space for deep listening and to be heard. All voices are honoured equally which can cultivate mutual support and learning.

When a person’s sex assigned at birth corresponds to their gender expression.

In contrast to criminal offences, where the state initiates the proceedings against a criminal defendant, civil offences are initiated by a private citizen (or corporation) against a person (or corporation). Those found guilty in a civil proceeding are said to be liable for “damages”. Rather than prison, they pay the victim money.

Systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment that occurs when people are processing and interpreting information in the world around them.

A secret intelligence program organised by the FBI to discredit individuals and groups perceived to be a threat to the government of the United States. Targets included Indigenous and Black leaders critical of the government, such as members of the American Indian Movement and the Black Panther Party, socialists, and those advocating for an end to war.

The shared set of beliefs and feelings that are commonly held by members of a group.

The practice of controlling a territory, or another nation, and populating it with settlers in an exploitative manner. In this regard, colonisation is also closely correlated with the practice of 'settler-colonialism.'

The establishment of a colony to expand a nation state or territory. Establishing a colony might involve both the establishment of control over a territory and the Indigenous peoples who previously resided in that area. It may also involve the colonisation of minds through the imposition of Western European ideals, religion, language, and social practices onto the people who were living there before colonisation. The term “colonisation” is closely related to the term “colonialism.”

Provides direct services to victims and receive funding either in whole or in part by the provincial and/or federal government responsible for criminal justice matters.

The repayment of losses to the victim given by the state.

Research methods that involve using computers to model, simulate and analyze social phenomena, and to assess patterns and trends working with big data. Big data could be anything from corporate databases or datasets from the government that could not feasibly be examined by humans using discourse or content analysis.

To form a concept or idea about something and to become very specific about what we mean by those concepts for the purpose of our own research.

A learning process in which the likelihood of a specific behaviour increases or decreases in response to reinforcement or punishment that occurs when the behaviour occurs.

A process based on restorative principles whereby the people most impacted by a harm come together to dialogue about what happened, how they were impacted, and explore ways to repair the harm.  These processes are facilitated by a trained facilitator and often include victims, offenders, their supporters, and representatives of the community.

The tendency to over-value evidence that confirms our beliefs over evidence that counters our beliefs.

A perspective about the way in which crime is defined that states that law and a society's response to crime are the creation of a ruling elite or class, and may reflect the interest of the dominant group.

Societal agreement on shared values and norms.

A perspective about the way in which crime is defined that states that law and a society's response to crime is rooted in societal agreement, where most people consider the act to be morally wrong.

Involves parental expectations, limits, rules and control. Parental control can be flexible and democratic, or harsh, rigid and coercive.

An approach to criminology that privileges the voices and standpoint of persons who have been criminalised or who have been system-affected.

A crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation for the benefit of the business or corporation.

When two or more variables are associated with one another.  The direction of the association is known when two variables are correlated.  A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, so does the other, or as one decreases, the other decreases.  A negative correlation means that as one increases, the other decreases, and vice versa.  Correlation does not guarantee causality.

Non-democratic, and often violent, overthrow of a government, either by those already working within the government but unhappy with its leadership, or by those outside the government who view the government as a threat to their interests.

An action or omission that constitutes an offense that may be prosecuted and is punishable by law.

A concept for understanding crime site selection. It may be thought of as a checklist (a set of conditions – environmental cues) that must be satisfied for a potential offender to undertake a particular criminal event.

A provincial and/or territorial program that provides financial benefits to help offset monetary losses and supports recovery for victims. Programs and eligibility vary by province and/or territory in Canada.

Drug use and prostitution.

Crime as an event. The criminal event has five dimensions: space, time, law, offender, and target or victim. These five components are necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a crime.

A group, however organised, that is composed of three or more persons in or outside Canada and one of its main purposes or activities is the facilitation or commission of one or more serious offences that would likely result in a material benefit, which includes financial benefit. This definition excludes groups that form randomly for the immediate commission of a single offence.

Criminogenic needs may be defined as those offender need areas in which treatment gain will reduce the likelihood of recidivism. These needs are described as dynamic as they can be altered.  Examples include substance abuse and antisocial thinking patterns.

The risk or likelihood of future criminality.

These factors increase the likelihood and allow us to predict future criminal behaviour. Examples include antisocial personality, a history of antisocial behaviour, a history of substance abuse, and dysfunctional family life.

A branch of criminological thought that examines how crime and criminal justice agencies are used as a form of social power that benefits some groups over others.

Method of research to explore the connections between the use of language/text and the social and political context within which it occurs.

A branch of victimology that combines the concept of the ideal victim with intersectionality. The goal is to deconstruct victim blaming discourses.

A research study that gathers data at one point in time. It provides a snapshot of the phenomenon of interest.

Provides support for people who have become involved in the criminal justice process as either victims or witnesses, offering information, assistance and referrals to victims and witnesses with the goal of trying to make the court process less intimidating.

A critical criminological theory that emphasises the immediate pleasures and experiences of those who break the law, with a particular focus on the era of late modernity.

A branch of psychology that looks at how individual behaviour is constructed by society.

Theoretical perspective that considers the role of media in producing and reproducing culturally relevant and socially constructed meanings.

A general term used to describe all aspects of a society related to individual and collective identity and meaning. Culture can be expressed in the material items of a particular society, such as clothing and other consumer goods, as well as in the ideas and beliefs that circulate and shape the way individuals and groups understand themselves and the surrounding world. Culture can more narrowly refer to aspects of creative output such as art, music and literature, and is often divided into high culture and low culture. While high culture is found in art galleries, museums and opera houses, low culture, or popular culture, can be found all around us and is the stuff of TV, popular music and graffiti art. Cultural criminologists view culture as arising from broader economic and social relations, and thus tending to reflect dominant ideas related to crime and crime control.

Crime that goes undetected, unreported or unrecorded and is not included in official crime data sources.

Implies rightful ownership of specific data.  This involves allowing Indigenous peoples to control who collects data about their people and what data are collected, as well as how the results are disseminated.

The process of deconstructing colonial ideologies of the superiority and privilege of Western thought and approaches embedded in western societies such as Canada. Decolonisation can also mean cultural, psychological, and economic freedom for Indigenous peoples.

A research model that involves working from the general to the specific, or from theory to data collection. The deductive model employs quantitative methods of research.

A model that can inhibit crime in residential environments. These environments might be specific buildings, projects, or entire neighbourhoods.

The process of discharging chronic mental health patients into the community in order for them to receive care from community mental health services. The deinstitutionalisation movement began in Canada in the 1960s.

The condemnation of an individual’s actions, specifically with regard to offending.

Drugs that are created in underground or secret labs by changing the chemical properties of other pre-existing drugs.

The theory that everything, including behaviour, is completely under the control of past events so people have no free will or choice in the way they act or behave.

The idea or theory that the threat of punishment will deter people from committing crime and that the punishment of someone else will deter them as well (general deterrence). It also can mean punishing an individual to teach them not to offend again (specific deterrence).

Behaviour that departs from or violates social norms.

The interaction with others who engage (or support) certain kinds of behaviour and expose individuals to definitions favourable to crime.

An individual-level sociological theory of crime that refuted claims that criminality was inherited, and proposed, rather, that it was learned.

The balance of anticipated or actual rewards and punishments that result from engaging in specific behaviour.

How individuals shape their conduct to line up with expert knowledge and rules of discourse.

The general domain of all statements and classifications about something/anything, like the discourse of child development or discourse of victimhood, and a system of categories that structures the way we perceive reality.

Regions within the cities that are defined as areas that have commonalities and identifying features such that they are a congruent spatial units such that any differences within the district must be smaller than the differences that exist between districts.

Deoxyribonucleic acid. A single molecule which is comprised of two polynucleotide chains which coil to form the well-known double helix. It carries all an organism’s genetic material and is formed into chromosomes.

An edict given by the Catholic church to Western European nations to discover, colonise, and spread the Christian message. It gave countries like England, France, Spain, and Portugal the god-given right to conquer and colonise new lands that were uninhabited by Christians.

The process through which a person is labeled as a criminal, particularly as they move through the justice system.

A perspective that holds that humans are relationally connected to the natural world and that, while humans need to utilise resources to survive, they have a duty to use resources responsibly and minimise their impact on other species and the environment.

Studying crime in terms of its environmental influences.

A perspective holding that natural entities and the natural world is worthy of protection in their own right and not just as resources to be exploited or used instrumentally.

A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.

The boundaries between districts that may be physical and distinct (literally crossing the tracks) or they may be subtle such as the gradual change as one passes from one neighbourhood to the next.

A method of study based on tangible and observable facts, evidence, and research.

A term coined by Brantingham and Brantingham (1981) which represents the built environment, social and cultural norms, institutions, and the legal environment.

A branch of criminology that deals with researching special – physical and social – determinations of patterns of criminal behaviour and is closely connected with situational criminal prevention.

An approach to justice that strives to overcome the manner in which negative impacts of environmental crimes and harms disproportionately affect marginalised groups in society, specifically based on race (Black, Indigenous, people of colour), class (e.g., low-income), and gender (e.g., dangers of male-dominated slaughterhouse work, effects of toxic chemicals on female reproduction).

Policies or practices that result in a discriminatory environmental impact (whether intended on unintended) on racialised groups or individuals.

An array of chemicals and proteins that tells the genome how to function, such as which genes to express or turn on, and which to turn off.

The study of knowledge or ways of knowing.

A categorisation of a group of people who share a national, cultural, religious, or language commonality. Such categorisations could be either an external labelling or one that is self-defined by the group. A concept of ethnicity can also overlap with a concept of race because ethnic categorisation may also use skin colour, hair texture, and other physical characteristics to describe membership in an imagined ethnic community.

A method of field research pioneered in cultural anthropology that involves immersive and lengthy interaction with cultural groups in order to learn about their ways of life and beliefs. Ethnography is a favoured method of cultural criminology, but it is not the only approach in this perspective.

The word eugenics refers to good birth. Eugenics is the practice of selectively encouraging people with 'desirable traits' to breed to 'improve' the human species. Positive eugenics is the practice of encouraging people that are considered to be 'superior' in some manner to have more children. Negative eugenics is the practice of ‘discouraging’ or actively preventing people who are considered 'less desirable' from having children, including enforced sterilisation.

When the information you use to make decisions is based on research, not opinion.

When information and research is combined with experiences and expertise to best fit the population and culture being served.

A branch of psychology that looks at unconscious psychological mechanisms that would have been adaptive in the environment in which they evolved.

A quantitative scientific procedure performed to determine something or test a hypothesis.

Indicatable offences in Canada. In the US, a serious offence, such as murder or sexual assault.

A qualitative method that involves observing and possibly interacting with research subjects in their natural environment.

These white-collar crimes involve illegality within finance and financial institutions, such as banks and insurance companies, and typically involve large sums of money.

Planned and deliberate homicide.

A qualitative method that involves a group of individuals brought together and led by a moderator to share similarities, opinions, or differences.

In the context of moral panics, these individuals or groups are the perceived menace upon which the public concern is focused.

A misrepresentation of facts and/or the use of dishonest methods in order to obtain money or other financial or personal benefits.

A tool to use in social science research to investigate state and criminal justice practices that accesses state records that would not otherwise be disclosed.

A broad term that can refer to friendship groups, youth groups, street groups, criminal networks, prison groups, or media-labelled groups. Because the word carries fear and stigma and may change based on interpretation from one place or time to another, it needs to be used carefully.

A person or position that controls access to something and has the power to decide who obtains resources or opportunities and who does not.

A right that is a prerequisite to accessing other rights.

The new name that is used when referring to the General Social Survey to better reflect the data that is integrated.

A series of annual surveys conducted by Statistics Canada since 1985 to gather data on social trends and to provide information on specific policy issues of current or emerging interest.

The degree to which the results of a study can be applied to a larger population. The larger the sample, the greater the ability to generalise the findings of the study.

A result of your genes. Genetics is the study of heredity and genes.

A coordinated effort intended to bring about the destruction of a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group.

The genetic blueprint for a person, their genetic instructions.

A person’s genetic background.

Demonstrates how individuals develop an individual awareness space that consists of their major routine activity nodes (e.g., home, school, workplaces – activity spaces): the travel paths that connect them and everything within the visual range of the offender.

The set of practices (rationalities, techniques, knowledges) via which people are (self) governed but also the means by which someone else’s activities are shaped.

A branch of criminology that deals with research into criminality against the environment and associated phenomena (e.g., animal cruelty).

The study of the breadth of victims (environment, human, and animal) and avenues of victimisation related to environmental crime and harm, as well as the institutional and state responses to such victimisation.

The corporate practice of portraying a product as environmentally friendly or not harmful; for example, using images of plants on a bottle to imply connection to environmental sustainability but the ingredients contain harmful chemicals.

Information produced outside of traditional publishing and distribution channels, including government and community reports, conference papers, and dissertations.

The promotion of hatred against any group in a public statement.

The dominance of one group’s ideas over another group’s ideas and when the dominant group controls the thinking of other groups, or when the ideas of the dominant class become the ideas of everyone.

The belief that only sexual and romantic feelings between males and females is acceptable and that sexual and romantic attraction between members of the same sex is deviant.

The preference shown by journalists towards sources in powerful positions, casting them as primary definers whose opinions and ideas are portrayed as inherently more credible than those of others who might wish to comment upon a story.

A method of research where a researcher examines a culture or society or social practice by immersing themselves in the history of experiences for the group or individual they are interested in.

Multigenerational trauma experienced by a specific cultural or racial group, such as the violent colonisation experienced by Indigenous peoples.

Biological messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream by glands such as ovaries or the pancreas to communicate instructions to parts of the body for example, to release adrenalin.

The study of the dynamic interrelationships between human populations and the physical, biotic, cultural and social characteristics of their environment and the biosphere.

A proposed explanation used as a starting point in the deductive model for further investigation, or emerging at the end of the research process in the inductive model. A hypothesis is typically written as an “if, then” statement and outlines how we expect the variables to be related to one another and the direction of that relationship.

The socially constructed victim who is seen as weaker than their attacker, blameless, and with whom the audience will readily sympathise.

When an offender takes a person’s personal information (e.g., credit card information) and uses it to make purchases in that person’s name or evade law enforcement through use of their identity.

When a person steals another person’s identity with the intention of committing an indictable offence that includes fraud or falsehood.

When a company gains exclusive control over the consumer market for a particular good or service through illicit conduct.

Engaging in behaviour after observing others similarly participate in the act.

The tendency to trust peers and colleagues more than those outside your in-group.

Indigenous peoples in Canada were originally referred to as “Indians” by Western explorers because they were looking for a western passage to the East Indies. When Christopher Columbus arrived in the Caribbean in 1492, he incorrectly thought he had discovered a new passage to the imagined territory of the Indies (i.e., China, Japan, and India). The inhabitants were hence thought to be “Indians.”

A serious offence, such as murder or sexual assault.

A branch of psychology that focuses on traits within the individual to explain behaviour, such as personality and temperament.

A research model that involves working from the specific to the general or from observations to the development of theory.  The inductive model employs qualitative methods.

The buying or selling of a publicly-traded company's stock by someone who has non-public, material information about that stock” that will likely affect its value.

A condition where higher rates of criminal activity are attributed to the cultural pressure exerted by economic goals that are generalised throughout a society.

A method of research where a researcher examines a specific institution via an in-depth study of all of its elements and practices to identify power relations that structure an experience in the institution and how the institution itself is organised.

A practice of racism where the racism can be understood as “racism without racists.” It does not require the presence of racist subjects or beliefs; it is the racism practiced by an institution or a governing body. The bias that is produced exists because of the invention and application of a rule or a policy. The racist outcome would not be the product of an individual’s racist ideation.

The state of being placed or kept in an institution in which life and actions are highly controlled; refers to a person developing deficits in life and social skills due to becoming used to living in an institution.

The argument that the state system always operates as an arm of, or instrument of, capitalism, or the state apparatus and criminal law exists as a direct result of capitalism to uphold capitalism and the capitalist mode of production.

The interconnected nature of social categorisations such as race, class, gender, age and the multiplicative effect on victimisation. Developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989.

In between spaces.

A qualitative method that involves asking a series of mostly open-ended questions in an effort to capture the participants’ voices in their own words.

The killing of a current or former legal spouse, common-law partner, dating partner, or other intimate partner.

A theory of economics arguing for increased government spending (on things like education, employment insurance, etc.) and lower taxes (for businesses) to stimulate demand, meaning employers will invest more and employ more people thereby maintaining economic growth and stabilising the economy.

Mead's micro-level theory that examines how definitions of bad behaviour are originally constructed, and how stigmatising labels can lead a person to commit more crimes.

The time period beginning in the late twentieth century and extending to today. Social theorists like Anthony Giddens and Zygmunt Bauman argue that the defining features of the modern era were transformed in significant ways in the late twentieth century. Capitalism, communications, and conceptions of the self were markedly altered in this period. However, these theorists dispute the notion that there has been a complete break from modernity heralding a new post-modern era. Instead, they see the present time period as being characterised by an intensification of modernity. Cultural criminology does not completely disavow the ideas and insights of postmodernism, but generally prefers the term late modernity to denote the present era marked by widespread interactive digital communications, commodification of crime and violence, rapid global flows of capital, goods and people, and an intensification of feelings of insecurity and anxiety (e.g., Young, 2007).

Norms that are specified in explicit codes.

A person or other entity that at law has the powers and responsibilities normally associated with an ordinary human; legal personhood is not limited to flesh-and-blood humans but can extend to corporations, municipalities and, in some cases, natural entities.

Defines crime as a violation of criminal law.

A theory that examines the trajectory of crime and desistance, including the “turning points” that impact the trajectory, such as marriage or employment.

Offenders that begin to show antisocial behaviour in childhood that continues into adulthood are what Moffitt considers to be life-course-persistent offenders. Their delinquent behaviour is attributed to several factors including neuropsychological impairments and negative environmental features.

A written summary and overview of writings and other sources on a selected topic to gain an understanding of existing research relevant to the topic.

Personal knowledge about the world gained through direct, first-hand involvement in everyday events rather than through representations constructed by other people.

Efforts to influence lawmakers, and the law-making process, on behalf of a particular individual, group, industry, or organisation.

A study which extends beyond a single point in time and involves the collection of data at various time intervals.

The recirculation of media content in different formats, contexts, and media outlets.

The non-linear way meaning flows through media and popular culture.

In addition to the capitalist and working class, Marx identified the lumpenproletariat – a group that was defined as an unorganised, non-political underclass.

Macro-level sociological theories examine large-scale social phenomena, systems, and structures, rather than individual actions, to explain behaviour.

Non-intentional homicide resulting from intoxication, recklessness, or negligence (e.g., two people in a bar get in a fight and one kills the other by accident).

A theoretical perspective that views media as a business that delivers a product intended to meet market demand.

Involves the killing of more than three people in a single event.

Combining two strategies from strain theory-conformity and innovation-to increase one's chances of acquiring wealth and privilege.

When the media offer the audience a snapshot of events, always leaving something out.

The way in which the perspective on society conveyed in mainstream media is similar to the dominant institutional perspective and encourages the audience to adopt the same perspective.

A guilty mind.

System of methods, procedures and principles used in a particular area of study or discipline.

Micro-level sociological theories look to individual behavior and personal relationships to explain crime.

Summary offence in Canada. In the US, a less serious crime for which a person would receive a lighter punishment.

The far more frequent and intense news coverage of instances where white women or girls go missing compared to instances where the missing persons are not white or not female. Researchers generally attribute this term to Gwen Ifill, PBS news anchor.

Factors that decrease the severity of an offence in the eyes of the criminal justice system.

A set of government policies that controls the amount of money in circulation as a way to stabilise the economy.

Individuals or groups who attempt to draw attention to and impose their moral perspective on behaviours they deem deviant or criminal in order to advance their own interests or political agendas.

Periods of intensified or frenzied public concern, the level of which is out of proportion with the actual threat posed by the object of concern.

The idea that different societies hold different ideas about what is moral or ethical.

The idea that the world is divided into distinct territorial entities, or nations, comprised of peoples with inherent ethnic, cultural, and even biological characteristics. Such nations are almost always territorially based where a specific land or geography is claimed. The imagined community and territory are often based on an ancient or long-established history and identity allowing the group to claim a primordial right to sovereignty and territorial occupation.

Reforms that diminish the power of the state and diminish the power of carceral institutions.

Governmental reform focused on free-market capitalism – policies that frees the market for capitalists including deregulation, privatisation, and free trade.

Chemical messengers in the body which act between nerve cells which produce extremely rapid responses and have a major impact on behaviour.

Internet-based news, entertainment, social media, video games, etc., that are interactive.

The aspects of stories used by news media to determine which stories will be deemed of interest to the media audience and, thus, reported on.

Consist of places (conceptualised as points) that are places within the city that a person travels to and from (e.g., business, entertainment, or industrial districts in the context of large urban centres).

Crimes that do not involve the use of any force or injury to another person (e.g., property damage).

The standard pattern of behaviours that is typical for a given group. 

Ideas that are based on fact and free from bias or personal opinion.

The First Nations principles of ownership, control, access, and possession (OCAP) assert that First Nations have control over data collection processes, and that they own and control how this information can be used.

Thefts against businesses that involve employees, executives, or owners, for personal benefit.

Data sets often produced by official governmental agencies for administrative purposes, such as Census data or crime figures.

A member of a small, ruling faction, that possesses significant social and economic power and is able to use it to influence the political system.

The philosophical examination of being. As an invention of Western thought, the concept is often referred to as a “theory of being” and paired with the term “epistemology” that refers to the sister concept of a “theory of knowledge” or how something is known. In this regard, ontology refers to the study of the “thing in itself” and not how it may be represented or interpreted.

A method of learning that utilises punishments and rewards for behaviour that either increases or decreases the likelihood that the behaviour will be committed again.

Turning abstract concepts or phenomena that may not be directly observable into measurable observations. For example, this would involve selecting the exact wording of survey questions.

Defining criminological concepts or events so they can be observed and measured in a scientific matter.

A theoretical perspective that views the routines of day-to-day news production as the most significant factor in shaping news content.

Serious criminal activity carried out by groups, networks, or associations for material benefit. This includes, but is not limited to, fraud, money laundering, firearms trafficking, extortion, migrant smuggling, human trafficking, labour exploitation, cybercrime, and the use of legitimate businesses to hide or support illegal activity.

A form of discriminatory racism that may be expressed as a clear and unambiguous act of racialisation. A subject or victim of such racism can experience overt racism as a direct and personal injury and/or emotional injury. It is often an encounter between two persons where racial bias is experienced by one party in a very personal and subjective manner.

A typical model, example, pattern, or theory of something. Restorative justice is often described as a paradigm shift (a fundamental change in approach or underlying assumptions).

The extent to which parents are aware of their children’s activities, including how they spend their time and who they spend their time with.

The channels that we use to move from node to node often limited by streets, walkways, and public transit.

Examines the ways targets come to the attention of offenders and how this influences the distribution of crime events over time, space, and amongst targets.

Government programs that focus on helping criminal offenders to stop offending by providing treatment or to provide for the welfare of prisoners.

The process of making something personally relatable for the audience.

The characteristic sets of behaviours, cognitions, and emotional patterns that evolve from biological and environmental factors. While there is no generally agreed upon definition of personality, most theories focus on motivation and psychological interactions with the environment one is surrounded by.

The observable properties of an organic organism. Phenotype is often understood as the product of both genotype, which refers to the genes of an organism, and the environment surrounding it. In the context of race and racialisation, it might refer to human traits like skin colour, height, weight, or eye colour.

One of the early pseudo-sciences, proposed by Franz Gall in the 19th century, that suggested that the bumps and lumps on the very hard skull was influenced by the shape of the very soft underlying brain so that these bumps and shapes indicated the shape of the brain, and that this in turn indicated a person’s personality. There was obviously no scientific basis for this and, even at the time, it was considered a pseudoscience. However, it did have a cult following in Europe and North America for some time.

An emergent element in critical criminology that advocates for the eradication of police.

Making changes or slight modifications to the existing structure of policing but keeping the original purpose of police.

Services provided following a victim’s first contact with police, offering information, support, assistance, referral, and court orientation.

Governmental or political party officials engaging in illegal and improper activity for personal gain.

All members of a particular area or group, or all things, that you want to learn more about from which a sample is drawn.

An orientation to the study of society that focuses on what can be observed – in criminology this means a focus on identifying and studying causes of crime that could then be corrected, which is strongly associated with crime control.

A set of theoretical ideas that examines language, text and culture and how these establish social spaces/creates our reality, as opposed to structuralism’s contention that the social is a patterned, rigid, and material set of structures.

A concept that incorporates posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth responses to trauma, while also exploring ambivalence and paradox in personal narratives about change.

A framework for understanding positive changes that trauma survivors experience over time from the process of reflecting on and reframing their narratives.

A disorder caused by exposure to extremely traumatic and stressful situations that fall outside the realm of normal, everyday, individual experiences.

A First Nation ceremony that consisted of feasting, gift-giving, property distribution, witnessing, and the affirmation or reaffirmation of social status. This ceremony is part of Coast Salish and western coastal First Nations throughout Canada and the US.

The diverse ways in which our actions control and are controlled by our relations (structural and otherwise) to others.

A risk factor. If someone has a predisposition for something, such as diabetes, they are more likely to develop diabetes than someone without the predisposition, but it is important to realise that it is a risk factor and does not mean that the person will get diabetes. The risk factor may be very small, e.g. someone who eats X regularly is 0.1% more likely to develop diabetes than someone who does not.

When two or more companies that are supposed to be competitors conspire to set prices at a certain level in order to avoid direct competition when selling the same products.

Data collected by researchers directly from the subjects or sources for the purpose of their own original research.

Individuals to whom the media turn to first to help define and explain a situation, who are perceived as having more specialised knowledge due to their institutional affiliation or professional position and, thus, as more credible sources (government officials, criminal justice system personnel, academics, etc.).

An emergent element of critical criminology that advocates for the eradication of prisons but also the whole set of sanctions, rules and punishments involved in institutional as well as community corrections. Also known as penal abolition.

Theoretical perspective that views the media as intentionally manipulating news content so that it aligns with the interests of the media owners and other powerful individuals or groups in society.

Breaking and entering, theft, identity fraud, and identity theft.

Any behaviour that is considered non-deviant or criminal definitions - one's attitudes or meanings attached to given behaviours that rationalise or offer the moral views of committing a specific act.

The exchange of sexual services for payment or material benefit.

Findings and claims that are presented as scientific, but are in fact not based on reliable scientific research.

A neuropsychiatric disorder marked by deficient emotional responses, lack of empathy, and poor behavioural controls, commonly resulting in persistent antisocial deviance and criminal behaviour.

An impairment causing difficulties in perceiving what is real and what is not.

An approach to law and criminal justice that involves the intentional infliction of punishment.

Research that involves the collection and analysis of in-depth textual or verbal, non-numerical data. Methods include interviews, focus groups, and field observation.

Collecting and analysing data that is non-numerical and focused on the detailed understanding of the subject being researched which can include in-depth interviews, observation, and other non-numerical data.

Research that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. It can involve testing causal relationships and making predictions. Methods include closed-ended surveys and experiments.

The use of race—by the criminal justice system—as the basis for criminal suspicion. This term is often associated with policing. It can be understood as describing race-based policing, or race-biased policing, where police use racial appearance as a deciding factor in who to select for stopping, questioning, searching, detaining, and arrest. Outside of this reference to policing, it can also be used to describe an intentional and deliberate consideration of race that negatively impacts racial minorities in the form of increased contact with public and/or private authorities. That is, it might manifest itself as a) the activity of selecting or examining a racial minority at a rate of selection that is higher and incommensurate with their demographic representation and/or b) attributing racial and stereotypical characteristics to a subject in a manner that is illogical and/or not based on empirical examination.

Racialisation employs the word “race” as a verb to demonstrate that race is a human action or activity and not a biological or scientific certainty. In so doing, the term helps demonstrate that “race” is a man-made or invented category. Racialisation is an everyday happening where “race” is something that we do to somebody else or to ourselves. As a verb, we can understand it to be a common mental shortcut where we might use a person's physical appearance as a stand-in or as a marker of their intelligence, their thinking, or their potential actions. We racialise other people and sometimes we racialise ourselves in this moment of comparison and othering. Some might also understand racialisation as a form of race-based stereotyping.

The assumption that the crimes committed by racial minorities can be explained by their race.

The process by which groups of people are designated as being part of a "race" and subjected to differential or unequal treatment on that basis.

Individuals use rational calculations to make rational choices and achieve outcomes that are aligned with their own personal objectives.

Data collected directly from the source and that exist at this point without any processing, transformation, or analysis.  Interview notes or survey responses are examples of raw data.

The process by which victims feel victimised for a second time by the criminal justice system and/or legal process.

Legal activities such as the manufacture of products to the public, driving on roads and highways, and working. The goal of this law is to protect the public from the potentially harmful consequences of otherwise legal activity.

In the context of the criminal justice system, this is the process of helping inmates grow and change, allowing them to separate themselves from the factors that made them offend in the first place. In addition, preparing someone for a productive/crime free life once out of incarceration.

The degree to which a measurement or research method produces consistent results. This consistency can also be understood as replicability, either at different times, and/or by different researchers.

The making of amends for a wrong one has done. This can be done by paying money to or otherwise helping (with service) those who have been wronged. In the criminal justice system, reparation is often court ordered.

The process of socially constructing images and attaching signification/meaning to them.

Bodies of government/states granted with the legal right to use physical force to control the masses.

The specific way you will collect data for your research study, such as conducting focus groups, interviews, surveys, or experiments.

A process of positive adaptation in the context of significant adversity. This involves navigating and negotiating tensions arising from adversity in a way that promotes personal well-being.

When an offender repays the victim for the financial losses they have incurred as a result of a crime.

An approach to crime that focuses on restitution rather than individual punishment. Restorative justice involves organising a meeting between the victim and offender, and often includes members of the community.

Involves inflicting punishment on an offender.

An approach to law and criminal justice based on the punishment of offenders with the intention of making the offender “pay” for what they have done (an “eye for an eye”).

The use of force or violence, or threat of force or violence, during the commission of theft.

Theory by Cohen and Felson that posits that the risk of crime increases when there is the convergence of the presence of a motivated offender, suitable targets, and a lack of a capable guardian.

A subset of people or things from the larger population we want to know more about. In quantitative research, our samples are larger than in qualitative research.

The process of selecting which people or things to research (i.e., selecting our sample) from the larger population, with the typical goal of generalising our findings from the sample to the population. In quantitative research, our sampling techniques are random, while in qualitative research, we use non-random sampling techniques to select those people or things with specific characteristics of interest.

The state in which the transformation of knowledge production is controlled by the colonisers while other ways of knowing, namely Indigenous ways of knowing, are dismissed.

The positivist use of science to prove the existence of race as a scientific category. It exploits science and scientific method as a pathway to promote the existence of race and it attempts to use natural and evolutionary science to falsely demonstrate that different “races” of human beings have evolved over centuries and now populate our world. Contemporary scientific research has shown that race is a faulty construct because DNA examination proves there are no “racial” differences in the genetic samples taken from people adapted to the different climates and continents of the world. For example, a person with Western European ancestry might have more genetic similarity with someone with east Asian ancestry than they do with someone with Scandinavian ancestry.

Intentional homicide that lacks the element of pre-planning and may occur in the heat of the moment.

Data that the researcher has not collected or created themselves as they already exist. The data in the UCR2 or the General Social Survey are examples of secondary data.

Individuals who have the task of responding to the definition of a situation as set out by the primary definers (including journalists who reproduce and/or filter what the primary definers have stated, as well as oppositional definers who journalists may include to provide a counter-point to what the primary definers have stated).

Fulfillment of one’s full human potential.

Crime data collected in academic research by asking offenders themselves about their criminal activities.

When a person kills several victims in three or more separate events.

A form of colonisation where newcomers resettle a territory that is already inhabited by Indigenous peoples. The resettlement erases and reterritorialises the land in such a way that the land becomes both foreign and inaccessible to the indigenous first inhabitants.

Any unwanted sexual contact that violates a person's sexual integrity, committed without voluntary consent.

The process of making something easier to understand, which also results in a loss of detail and complexity.

A highly practical and effective means of reducing specific crime problems. Essentially, it seeks to alter the situational determinants of crime so as to make crime less likely to happen.

Something that is not an actual fact, but has been defined by humans. Crime is a social construct because something that is considered a crime at some time or place may not be a crime in others. For example, owning small quantities of cannabis in Canada was a crime until very recently and now it is not.

A perspective which views the law and the definition of crime as a social construct.

Hirschi's micro-level theory that proposes that behaviour is controlled and regulated by our social bonds. According to this theory, criminality and other deviant behaviour results when an individual’s bond to society is weak or broken.  The four bonds are: attachment, commitment, involvement and belief.

An approach that links crime and delinquency to the disordered ecological characteristics of a neighbourhood.

Values, norms, and other social forces that regulate the behaviour of individuals in a society. 

A society or a social structure (e.g., a nation, a city, family, etc.) made up of a complex of concrete economic, political, and ideological relations, bound together and characterised by their historical relation to the economic relations (e.g., capitalism) they are located in.

The way people are incorporated into social groups.

A learning theory proposed by Akers that is composed of four main components: 1) differential associations, 2) definitions, 3) differential reinforcement, and 4) imitation. The first two components are nearly identical to those observed in differential association theory. Differential association was expanded to be inclusive of both direct interactions with others who engage in criminal acts, and more indirect associations that expose individuals to various norms or values.

A form of analysis that encourages examining relationships, exchanges, conflicts, and opportunities rather than assuming that gang boundaries are obvious or permanent, as implied by traditional rigidity or by gangs or organised crime. SNA interprets the complexity of phenomena, such as gangs, gang groups, and their networks, through the fluidity perspective of social relations.

The extent to which norms guide people's lives.

Theoretical perspective that views the media as playing an important role in upholding democracy, ensuring an informed citizenry, and shining light on abuses of power.

Organised patterns of social relations and institutions such as class, family, law, race, gender.

The physical or corporeal body. It is often used to refer to the experience and expression of physical or bodily symptoms. It can also refer to the somatic nervous system (i.e., the central nervous system) that resides primarily in a human body cavity as opposed to the peripheral nervous system that resides primarily in limbs and extremities.

The notion of authority, supremacy, and control over a territory and/or a population. It is derived from the concept of the “sovereign” who is a supreme ruler or monarch. Independence, autonomy, self-determination, and freedom from external control are implied by the use of the term.

A branch of criminology that measures and theorises explicitly spatial processes and relationships.

A concept in pattern theory referring to patterns in where crime occurs.

An approach to justice concerned with living creatures as having value in their own right; as such humans owe obligations and duties to them.

Connected to anthropocentrism, this is the assumption that humans are the superior species; human needs are prioritised and needs of other species are deemed unimportant; most often connected to the privileging of humans over animals.

A concept that describes the dynamic interplay between crime, control and media representation, whereby those labelled deviant are made to become more entrenched in behaviour deemed troubling by authorities and news reporters because of their ongoing coverage and treatment of the behaviour.

Acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their job as representatives of the state.

Socially-constructed category or label relying on generalised assumptions about people, behaviours, or situations based on a specific characteristic (such as race, ethnicity, culture, nationality, neighbourhood, gender, social class, etc.).

Merton's macro-level theory that explains crime as a response to the strain people experience when they are not able to achieve culturally defined goals because they do not have the institutional means to achieve them.

Crimes that include acts that occur in both public and private spaces, as well as interpersonal violence and property crime.

Any durable, street-oriented youth group whose own identity includes involvement in illegal activity.

The argument that law works to ensure capitalist accumulation and to maintain conditions where the generation of wealth is possible based on the idea that states act on behalf of capital, not at its behest, and ideology is spread out among numerous social structures.

Cohen's macro-level theory that seeks to explain juvenile delinquency, and mainly non-utilitarian crimes, by looking at subculture and class-specific values of middle class youth.

A subdivision within the dominant culture that has its own norms, beliefs, and values.

Perceptions based on one’s own feelings, experiences, and opinions rather than on external, observable facts.

Mental disorders that affect a person's brain and behaviour, leading to a person's inability to control their use of substances such as legal or illegal drugs, alcohol, or medications. Symptoms can range from moderate to severe, with addiction being the most severe form of SUDs.

Crimes that include those referred to as corporate crime, crimes of the powerful, state-corporate crime, and state criminality.

A less serious crime for which a person would receive a lighter punishment.

An indigenous and traditional dance that celebrates the earth and the sun. The dance ceremony is performed with songs and dances that have been passed from one generation to another. Sun dance was prohibited by the Indian Act of 1895 in Canada.

A quantitative method of collecting data by asking respondents questions in a questionnaire.

An interaction between two individuals or groups that is mutually beneficial.

A micro-level theory which studies the way social reality is constructed through communication (language and symbols).

Bias or difference experienced as an effect of social structures. It may not even be immediately recognised as racism. It is a form of multi-dimensional disparity or racial inequality that reveals itself in education, incarceration, and health (e.g., where there is less chance of Indigenous or Black students achieving their high school education, more chance of incarceration, and lower average life expectancies).

A type of discussion with participants sitting in a circle, originated by Indigenous peoples and often used as a part of a healing ceremony.  Talking circles can also be used to value participants’ sharing of personal experiences for the sake of research.

A technique which allows the person to rationalise or justify a criminal act. There are five techniques of neutralisation: denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of victim, condemnation of the condemners, and appeal to higher loyalties.

An aspect of personality concerned with emotional dispositions and reactions and their speed and intensity; the term often is used to refer to the prevailing mood or mood pattern of a person.

A concept in pattern theory referring to patterns in when crime occurs.

The concept of “land belonging to nobody,” a territory without a master, or uninhabited land. It was a legal concept used to justify settlements in the new world.

An abolitionist concept capturing the idea that abolition is ongoing and requires constant struggle and analysis.

The fraudulent and intentional taking or converting of someone else's property, without lawful authority, with the intent to deprive the owner of it temporarily or absolutely.

An explanation for observed facts and laws that relate to a particular phenomenon.  It is made up of a set of concepts and an explanation of how these concepts are related to one another.

Traditional types of media (that existed pre-Internet), including print (newspapers, magazines, books), visual (films, television programs), and audio (radio, music recordings) forms.

Something that carries on over several generations.

The experience of and response to, an overwhelmingly negative event or series of events.

Policies and practices that recognise the connections between violence, trauma, negative health outcomes, and behaviours.

Recognises and responds to the signs, symptoms, and risks of trauma to better support the health needs of patients who have experienced Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and toxic stress.

A strengths-based framework grounded in an understanding of and responsiveness to the impact of trauma.

The blending of Indigenous world views and Western science.

A system of classification.

The historical fact that many Indigenous peoples did not surrender their lands to the Crown, nor to settler-colonial forces in Canada. Much of the territories that make up the nation of Canada resides on land that was never surrendered in a process of treaty-making. For example, it is estimated that much of the province of British Columbia resides on unceded territory—as much as 95% of the province resides on unceded First Nations land—that was never treatied or legally signed away to the Crown.

An incident-based survey which collects data from police records in Canada in a standardised format.

The thing or person being studied and analysed in a research study, such as individuals, groups, organisations or social artifacts.

The accuracy of our research methods, and whether they measure what they intend to measure.

A person, place, thing or phenomenon that you are trying to measure and that varies in value. Age, income, and number of crimes committed are all examples of variables.

When a victim of crime is held responsible, in whole or in part, for their own victimisation.

A written or oral statement made to the court by a victim or victim representative.

When the victim is the initial aggressor in the action that led to their harm or loss.

A specialised service that provides victims with ongoing information about the accused or offender. Information provided to the victim(s) can include the area within a province the accused or offender is residing, court dates and what happens at court, if the accused or offender is in the community or in custody, if the accused or offender is in custody, the name and address of the correctional center, and if the offender is in jail, the release date, length of their release and conditions the offender must followed upon release.

A number of different programs available to victims of crime and their families that provide criminal justice information and support, safety planning, practical and emotional support, and information and referral.

Ways of talking about victims and victimisation that place at least part of the responsibility for the harm done to the victim on their own behaviour or attributes (e.g., how they were dressed, what they said, where they were, what they were doing, which measures they took to defend themselves, etc.).

A process based on restorative justice principles where a victim and offender have direct or indirect dialogue in the aftermath of a harm.  This dialogue is usually facilitated by a trained person who has worked with both parties to prepare them for the encounter.

The outcome of deliberate action taken by a person or institution to exploit, oppress, or harm another, or to destroy or illegally obtain another's property or possessions.

The scientific study of victimisation within society that is grounded in the narratives and experiences of survivors of crime.

Homicide, sexual assault, assault, and robbery.

Crimes that use physical force against another person to take their property (e.g., robbery).

Used in routine activity theory to explain how an accessible target can include a person, an object, or even a place. Value (The value of achieving the target); Inertia (The physical obstacles of the target, e.g., weight, height, strength, etc.); Visibility (The attribute of exposure which solidifies the suitability of the target); Access (The placement of the individual/or object that increases, or decreases, the potential risk of the intended attack).

A typically European or colonial approach with adherence to the scientific method grounded in a belief in individualism, autonomy, purposefulness and meaning.

A crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation.

The study of social harm; from the Greek zemia, meaning harm or damage.