In the previous chapter, you explored the impact of bias and strategies for challenging biases. In this chapter, we will build on this foundation by considering the impact of social identity groups on patterns of discrimination.

What Are Social Identity Groups

Social identity groups can be based on:

• Race (Black, Asian, White)
• Ethnicity (Vietnamese, Chinese, Korean)
• Indigeneity (First Nations, Inuit, Métis, Non-Indigenous/Settler)
• Socioeconomic Status (Working Class, Middle Class)
• Gender/ Sexuality
• Immigration Status (International Student, Citizen, Permanent Resident)
• Language
• Religion
• (Dis)Ability (Deaf, Neurodivergent)

Social identities are most often unchosen and are the links that connect us to our families, communities, and the social groups with whom we most identify. Our social identities may be connected to our national cultures, or to the collection of small cultures (Holliday, 1999) we participate in.

Identity Salience and Awareness

Different aspects of our social identity can carry different degrees of awareness and importance. We think about some of our social identities frequently, while others may be outside of our awareness until they are brought to our attention through specific circumstances or interactions. For example, a Canadian student who speaks English as a first language may not be conscious of the identity of “native English speaker” if they have only lived in Canada but may become very aware if participating in a cultural exchange in Japan. Similarly, a man who works in nursing may be more aware of his male identity than a man working in construction because of the impact of being a minority among his colleagues.

Additionally, the identities that are most important to us may not be those that most affect how others perceive us. We may have important parts of our identity that are largely unseen, and that therefore do not impact the way others perceive us. Identity characteristics that are easily visible may influence how we are perceived and treated more often.

In-Group and Out-Group Dynamics

People naturally organize into identity groups, a tendency that serves important social and psychological functions but can also create barriers to understanding. Our neural networks develop around our in-group’s preferences and behaviors, making these patterns feel “normal” and natural to us (Myers, 2002). This neurological basis for group identification helps explain why intercultural interactions can sometimes feel challenging or uncomfortable.

For example, if we have been socialized with a preference for smaller physical space boundaries between people (close physical contact in crowded spaces), we might perceive those with large space boundaries as cold or unfriendly. If we have been socialized to call all people by their first names, being in spaces where titles and social status are important may feel formal or hierarchal to us. We can often fall into negative judgements when practices do not feel natural or normal to us, and it can require significant cognitive effort to interrupt this pattern. We can use strategies like the DAE (Bennett et al., 1977) in these contexts. However, we may also want to return to the comfort of our own in-group when we experience this discomfort.

Cognitive Challenges in Out-Group Interactions

When interacting with members of our perceived out-groups, we experience greater difficulty with pattern recognition, which can manifest as increased anxiety or a tendency to stereotype out-group members as “all the same”. This cognitive limitation is not a moral failing but rather a predictable result of how our brains process social information based on familiarity and experience (Choudhury, 2021).

When In-Group Bias Becomes Harmful

The tendency to prefer our in-group, as we have seen, is a normal human tendency. It supports us by helping us to create communities where we have a strong sense of belonging. If this is true, why do we need to consider the possible negative impacts of our in-group belonging?

While the tendency to organize into identity groups represents a normal social pattern, in-group and out-group behavior can cause significant harm under certain conditions. Specifically, problems arise when stereotypes and prejudice develop, and when in-groups possess greater social power and use this power to reduce opportunities for out-group members. Additionally, the socialization that occurs in our in-groups can prevent us from learning the stories and experiences of others. We can respond to others through learned in-group patterns, which might include defaulting to groupthink rather than seeking individual understanding and learning. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for recognizing how seemingly natural human tendencies can contribute to systemic discrimination and inequality.

Challenging In-Group Bias Through Values-Forward Thinking

Values-Forward Thinking, a framework developed by Khouri and Wilkinson (2023), can help us to move beyond “us and them” thinking patterns that can perpetuate intercultural misunderstanding and conflict. This approach emphasizes four key components:

• Recognizing Values and Ethical Frameworks

The first component involves actively recognizing values and ethical frameworks, particularly those focused on pursuing justice and what is morally right. This requires moving beyond automatic group loyalties to consider broader ethical principles. When we find ourselves in a relationship with those outside of our in-group where conflict is present, we can start to move beyond the conflict by considering what values we might hold in common, and that we might want to work towards together.

• Personalizing the Experience of the “Other”

Rather than viewing out-group members as abstract categories, we engage in practices that allow us to hear individual stories. This often includes engaging in Deep Listening practices (Anima Leadership, 2023). This personalization helps counter the tendency to stereotype and dehumanize out-group members.

• Separating Past from Present

Historical conflicts and grievances between groups can linger into present-day tensions. When we engage in Values-Forward Thinking, we are encouraged to  remain in the present, considering what might lead to justice in the present. This does not mean neglecting the ongoing impact of historical wrongs; however, this practice asks us to consider what is true in the present, and how we might address today’s concerns ethically together.

• Rejecting Groupthink

The final component involves actively rejecting groupthink and the pressure to conform to in-group perspectives without critical examination. This requires developing the courage to question group consensus when it conflicts with ethical principles or factual evidence.

Emotional Intelligence and In-Groups

Like other skills for promoting justice, moving outside of the comfort of in-group relationships requires emotional intelligence. Here are some of the skills we might apply:

Self-Regard: When we practice self-regard, we have an awareness of our inherent human value, as well as a well-tuned understanding of our strengths and weaknesses. This allows us to maintain positive worth in our own identity while staying open to those who are outside of our in-groups.

Self-Actualization: Pursuing intercultural development and justice-seeking move us towards the self that we aspire to be. Keeping our personal development aspirations in view can help us remain committed to learning from others when this is difficult or uncomfortable.

Empathy: We naturally are more easily empathetic towards those who are most like us. Challenging discrimination requires us to expand the circle of our empathy wider, showing a deeper understanding of the experiences of those less like us. 

Developing Empathy as a Core Skill

Empathy development requires intentional practice and can be cultivated through various strategies.

Engaging with Diverse Stories and Perspectives

One of the most effective ways to build empathy involves engaging with stories from different perspectives through movies, novels, documentaries, and podcasts. We can intentionally choose to spend some of our viewing or listening time with stories that are outside of our own experience. People who regularly read fiction are more likely to be strong in empathy (Kidd & Castano, 2013).

Developing Active Listening Skills

Active listening is one way to demonstrate and grow in empathy. As we have learned earlier, this can also be combined with Deep Listening as a strategy to ensure that we are thinking reflectively about the impact of identity on the stories that we hear (Anima Leadership, 2023).

Practicing Perspective-Taking

Perspective-taking involves consciously attempting to see situations from another person’s cultural and personal vantage point. This skill requires setting aside our own assumptions and biases to genuinely consider how circumstances might appear to someone with different experiences and cultural backgrounds.

How Does Power Intersect with Identity?

When we notice patterns of systemic discrimination, we can also often see the following patterns at work:

• (1) A social system where dominant identity groups create policies that favour their own needs in government, business, and education, and/or
• (2) Historical patterns of discrimination that continue to influence present behaviours and social outcomes.

For example, in 2024 Statistics Canada research found that,

Racism, discrimination, and marginalization within the health care system are documented barriers to health care for Indigenous people. About 24% of First Nations people living off reserve, 23% of Inuit and 18% of Métis reported that they experienced some form of unfair treatment, racism, or discrimination from a health care professional in the 12 months prior to the survey. First Nations women living off reserve and Métis women were nearly twice as likely to report this compared to men (Statistics Canada, 2024).

This present day experience of discrimination, with its connection to anti-Indigenous racism, is rooted in both of the factors mentioned above. The patterns of historical injustice, such as those rooted in the Indian Act, have created systems where Indigenous knowledges and ways of being may be viewed as inferior to Western knowledges. Without the full integration of Indigenous cultural safety practices into the delivery of health care, access to appropriate treatments in a respectful manner may not occur. For mental health care, the impact of intergenerational trauma combines with a system not fully equipped to provide culturally appropriate mental health support (Statistics Canada, 2024).

When we notice systemic discrimination, this type of power literacy can help us to analyze situations by considering the historical and present impacts of social identity on justice issues. Our knowledge of the impact of history on the present is an important part of self-education (Choudhury, 2021).

Chapter References

Anima Leadership. (2023, December 14). Brave Conversations Workshop.

Bennett, J. M., Bennett, M. J., & Stillings, K. (1977). Description, interpretation, and evaluation: Facilitators’ guidelines.

Choudhury, S. (2021). Deep diversity: A compassionate, scientific approach to achieving racial justice.

Holliday, A. (1999). Small cultures. Applied Linguistics, 20(2), 237–264. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.2.237

Khouri, R. G., & Wilkinson, J. J. (2023). The wall between: What Jews and Palestinians don’t want to know about each other. Olive Branch Press, an imprint of Interlink Publishing Group, Inc.

Kidd, D. C., & Castano, E. (2013). Reading literary fiction improves theory of mind. Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science), 342(6156), 377–380. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1239918

Myers, D. G., & ebrary, I. (2002). Intuition: Its powers and perils (1st ed.). Yale University Press. https://go.exlibris.link/X1WPnBpn

Statistics Canada. (2024, November 4). Health care access and experiences among Indigenous people, 2024. Statistics Canada. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/241104/dq241104a-eng.htm