Ownership

In this book, we will discuss concepts of ownership which originate from a Western perspective. Traditionally, many Indigenous Nations do not focus on “ownership” per se, but rather on stewardship or care taking responsibilities of knowledge, resources, and relations. The stewardship or care taking emphasizes community and inter-generational accountability rather than the individuals’ rights (Younging, 2025). Indigenous identity fraud, also known as pretendianism or “Pretendians,” is a specific act of colonial violence and appropriation that undermines this community-based accountability by allowing people who are not accountable to a specific Indigenous Nation or community to claim ownership and authority over Indigenous Knowledge (TVO Today, 2023). Western concepts of ownership typically focus on the individuals’ rights to profit from their property, intellectual property or otherwise. When we discuss “ownership” in this book, we are looking at ways to protect Indigenous Knowledges and information within a Western legal context.

While Western concepts of ownership primarily focus on the individual, within an Indigenous context, ownership extends beyond. In many cases, information, stories, and songs belong to the collective, including a clan, family, or Nation. In addition, there are often rules or laws called Cultural Protocol which govern when or with whom information may be shared. Some information may only be shared at certain times of year or with certain people (Younging, 2025). These Protocols reinforce that decisions about knowledge sharing and representation rests with Indigenous communities themselves. An action like Indigenous identity fraud distorts how Indigenous voices, ownership, and sovereignty are recognized and legitimized in academic and public spaces (Shawanda & Maracle, 2025).

Because Western ownership models were not designed to reflect Indigenous stewardship or Oral Knowledge governance, significant gaps emerge when Western copyright frameworks are limited to print-based materials. Western ideas of ownership and copyright typically apply only to print works, while most Indigenous Peoples belong to robust Oral Traditions. Historically, oral information was not included within Western copyright (Younging, 2025). As a result, Western ownership models often fail to adequately protect Indigenous Knowledge relationships, placing greater responsibility on researchers, institutions, and readers to engage with Indigenous information through consent, accountability, and community Protocols (Younging, 2025). We will discuss some of the complications that arise from this later in this book.