In Chapter 1, we introduced character encoding systems such as ASCII and Unicode, as well as the IEEE 754 floating-point representation. In this chapter, we expand on these systems and explore how integers, both positive and negative, are represented in binary formats such as sign-magnitude, one’s complement, and two’s complement. Finally, we address important system-level issues such as data overflow and underflow, and how to interpret raw memory content. You will find these concepts critical for debugging, optimizing performance, and ensuring data integrity in software and hardware systems.