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Chapter 6: Modals

III. Descriptive/Interpretive Function of Modals: Descriptions from the Speaker’s Point of View (Opinion)

1.0 Descriptive Function of Modals: Introduction

Besides having a social function, modals can have a descriptive function.  They are used to accurately describe reality—the truth or facts about our world or about a situation.

However, there is also a human aspect to this descriptive function.  Although we are describing reality, the speaker’s opinion is part of this description.  These modals include the speaker’s interpretation or opinion of what happens or what is, was or will be.

There are descriptive modals for:

  • expressing probability—certainty of situations or predictions
  • describing ability (what someone can or cannot do)
  • making predictions (what we think could or will happen)
  • predictions about the past (what we think are the reasons for something that happened)
  • making predictions about the effects of an action (the cause)
  • expressing habits that happened in the past but that no longer happen (only one modal)

1.1 Form

Most modals with a Social Function are in the form of a Simple Modal, which has the basic form of modal + base form of the verb.  However, there are also some phrasal forms for modals with a social function, which generally use various forms of the verb ‘BE’ + Modal.

On the other hand, most modals with a descriptive or interpretive function express different levels of possibility, necessity, or probability and are in the form of a phrasal modal, which combines a single word modal with other words, which change it into a phrase.

There is a hybrid form of modal with verb tenses which is called a semi-modal.  This often combines auxiliary verbs found in the different verb tenses with additional word forms associated with modals.  These hybrid forms have quite complex structures that are more appropriately studied at an advanced stage of English language study, so they will only be introduced briefly at the end of this chapter with only a few exercises provided.

2.0 Descriptions from the Speaker’s Point of View (Interpretation)

Just as with Social Function Modals, modals used for the purposes of the description and interpretation of situations and actions have different functions.

These will be discussed in more detail in the sections that follow, but they include:

  • Probability (predictions or certainty)
  • Ability
  • Describing likely effects
  • Describing habits in the past

3.0 Introduction to Modals of Probability (Predictions or Certainty)

Modals can be used to accurately express different levels of certainty about our predictions about actions, situations, or possibilities.   In other words, they express how sure we are that something will happen or that something is true.  These different degrees of certainty are expressed by using different modal words—they are not expressed in different forms of the same word.  There are also past and future modals of certainty.

For example, if we are predicting the weather, we might want to add how likely it is to rain.  What are the chances of rain?  For a scientific weather report, we might use POP (possibility of precipitation) in percentage  form—such as 80% chance of rain).  However, in everyday usage, we would use less precise terms.

Examples

It will rain tomorrow.  (100% chance)

It could rain tomorrow.  (around 60–75% chance) → modal (will) + adverb (probably) + main verb

It might rain tomorrow.  (25–30% chance)

It probably won’t rain tomorrow.  (very small chance of rain)

In summary, these predicative functions of modals of certainty include:

  • Degrees of certainty
  • Past and future forms

3.1 Form: Simple Modals

Modals used to express degrees of certainty as demonstrated above include the simple modals will, going to, might, and could.  Negative forms are will not (won’t), not going to, and might not.  There is no negative form of ‘could’ for expressing different levels of certainty.

We use the same form as we do for most modals of social function.

modal + base form of the verb

Examples

I will go to the store.

I might go to the store.

3.2 Form: Phrasal Modals

Phrasal modals use various forms of ‘BE’ + Modal in the descriptive sentence pattern of:

Subject + Linking Verb + Modifier

A modifier can be a noun, gerund, adjective/participle, or adverb/preposition phrase of place.

Examples

It might be raining outside.

He is acting strange.  He could be nervous.

It might be in the closet.

3.3 Verb Tenses with Modals of Probability

It is possible to express modals of probably in the past, present or future.

3.4 Using Modals of Probability in the Present, Past and Future

3.4.1 Probability in the Present: Modal + Verb BE + Modifier

Modals of probability in the present take the following form:

modal + verb BE + modifier

Examples

Weaker Probability

  • Could be: It could be raining on the other side of the city.  I see dark clouds there.
  • Might be: The animal that is outside of our tent might be a bear.  It is making heavy breathing sounds.

 
Medium Probability

  • Should be: They should be here already.  They left an hour ago.

 
Strong Probability

  • Must be/has to be:
    • She must be tired after working twelve hours today.  (tired=participle)
    • He has to be excited about his job.
  • Must not be (mustn’t be for speaking): He must not be feeling well.  He seems to have very low energy today.
  • Can’t be: That can’t be the right package.  It should be much bigger.
  • Will be: They will be back from Brazil on Thursday.

Exercises

  1. The following paragraph uses modals of probability in the present.  In Part A, underline the modals that express probability in the present.  In Part B, indicate whether the modal that is used has weak, medium, or strong probability.
     
    1. Underline the present modals of probability in the following paragraph (could be, might be, should be, will be, must be, can’t be, may be, must have).
       

      A: I wonder why Abel hasn’t sent out his graduation invitations yet.

      B: Well, I heard that he had to cut back his class load last semester because he needed a job.  It might be that he will not graduate this spring.  I heard that he needed to get a job to pay for his classes.

      A: That might be true, but he didn’t need that many credits to finish his degree.  He also told me that he will be finished soon.  It may be that he is just so busy that he didn’t have time to send out the invitations yet.

      B: Yes, but he should be finished with his classes already.  Besides, the graduation is next week.

      A: Well, it can’t be that he is not inviting us.  After all, we are good friends with him.

      B: He does have a very poor memory.  I wonder how he got through university.  He has also been very busy lately.  I can’t think of any other reason for not sending them.  He must have forgotten to send them.  I’ll call him to see if we are invited.
       

      Answers show/hide

      A: I wonder why Abel hasn’t sent out his graduation invitations yet.

      B: Well, I heard that he had to cut back his class load last semester because he needed a job.  It might be that he will not graduate this spring.  I heard that he needed to get a job to pay for his classes.

      A: That might be true, but he didn’t need that many credits to finish his degree.  He also told me that he will be finished soon.  It may be that he is just so busy that he didn’t have time to send out the invitations yet.

      B: Yes, but he should be finished with his classes already.  Besides, the graduation is next week.

      A: Well, it can’t be that he is not inviting us.  After all, we are good friends with him.

      B: He does have a very poor memory.  I wonder how he got through university.  He has also been very busy lately.  I can’t think of any other reason for not sending them.  He must have forgotten to send them.  I’ll call him to see if we are invited.

       

    2. Now, in the space after the modal form, indicate whether the modal has weak, medium, or strong probability.  w = weak, m = medium, s = strong
       

      A: I wonder why Abel hasn’t sent out his graduation invitations yet.

      B: Well, I heard that he had to cut back his class load last semester because he needed a job.  It might be (1)                  that he will not graduate this spring.  I heard that he needed to get a job to pay for his classes.

      A: That might be true, but he didn’t need that many credits to finish his degree.  He also told me that he will be finished (2)                  soon.  It could be (3)                  that maybe he is just so busy that he didn’t have time to send out the invitations yet.

      B: Yes, but he should be finished (4)                  with his classes already.  Besides, the graduation is nextweek.

      A: Well, it can’t be (5)                  that he is not inviting us.  After all, we are good friends with him.

      B: He does have a very poor memory.  I wonder how he got through university.  He has also been very busy lately.  I can’t think of any other reason for not sending them.  He must have forgotten (6)                  to send them.  I’ll call him to see if we are invited.
       

      Answers show/hide
      1. w
      2. s
      3. m
      4. s
      5. s
      6. m

       

  2. Fill in the blanks with a modal form using the different probabilities for a certain level of probability (weak, medium, strong).  Use the context of the sentence to decide whether a weak, medium, or strong modal should be used for that situation.
     
    weak: could be, might be
    medium: should be
    strong: must be/must not be, has to be, can’t be, will be
     
    1. I have heard different things from different people, but I think that Darko                       sick.
    2. Is that the person we were supposed to meet here?  He told us that he has was quite short, with dark eyes, a beard, and long hair.  This person has dark eyes, a beard, and long hair, but he is quite tall.  It                       be him.
    3. She                       here by now.  Her train was supposed to arrive at 1:30 p.m.
    4. The time that they told us to be here                       the right time.  We have already waited 30 minutes for them.
    5. At the airport . . .
      A: That                       the taxi that we called.  It seems like the driver is looking for someone, but there are other people waiting here.
      B: True, but we called a taxi 30 minutes ago, and these other people just arrived at the waiting area for the taxi.  That                       our taxi.
    6. You                       exhausted.  How long were you driving to get here?  Wasn’t it fifteen hours?
    7. Oh, my package has arrived.  It                       the new coat that I ordered last week.
    8. Oh no!  I missed my bus, and my appointment starts in 15 minutes.  I had better call the doctor’s office and tell them that I                       late.

     

    Answers show/hide
    1. could be OR might be
    2. must not be OR can’t be
    3. should be
    4. must not be OR can’t be
    5. could be OR might be
      should be OR must be OR has to be
    6. must be OR have to be
    7. must be OR has to be
    8. will be

     

  3. Finish the sentence or write another sentence to make predictions about the following using the different probabilities that are indicated.
     
    1. My phone isn’t working.  (must be)                                                                 
    2. My friend hasn’t texted me for three days.  (might be)                                                                 
    3. The bus is late.  (should be)                                                                 
    4. It is supposed to snow tomorrow.  (will be)                                                                 
    5. No one has called about the table I have for sale.  (must not be)                                                                 
    6. The weather forecast said that (should be)                                                                 
    7. Write your own sentences using the following modals:
      1. (could be)                                                                                                                                 
      2. (must not be)                                                                                                                                 
      3. (will be)                                                                                                                                 

     
    Answers will vary.

3.4.2 Probability in the Past: Must Have/Must Not Have

We can use modals to make a prediction about the cause of something in the present.  There are different levels of certainty for predictions about the past:

3.4.2.1 Strong Certainty

When we are quite sure of a possible cause.

  • Use ‘must have’ + past participle for actions as the probable cause.
  • Use ‘must/would have been’ + modifier to describe something in a Subject + Linking Verb + Modifier Sentence.
  • Use ‘must/would not have’ or ‘couldn’t have’ as the negative form.
    Example
    That loud sound must have been thunder.  It was raining last night.
  • For speaking only, use ‘musn’t have’ as the negative form.
Examples

Everything is wet.  It must have rained this morning.  (use ‘must have’ + past participle)

The cake is gone.  Someone must have eaten it.

My car is not running well again.  The mechanic couldn’t have fixed it properly.

Carlos did not come to the meeting.  He is always very responsible.  He must not have gotten the message.

When using a cause in the form of a modifier (noun, adjective, participle, adverb):

  • Use ‘must have been’ or ‘couldn’t have been’+ modifier.
Examples

It made a rattling sound when we got close to it.  It must have been a rattlesnake.

They left a message on our door.  They must have been here this afternoon.

3.4.2.2 Weaker Certainty: Could Have, May Have, May Not Have, Might Have, Might Not Have

  • Use ‘may have’, ‘might have’, ‘could have’ + past participle for actions with weaker certainty about the cause.
  • Use ‘may not have’, ‘might not have’ as the negative form.
  • Use ‘may/might + have been’ + modifier to describe something in a Subject + Linking Verb + Modifier Sentence.
Examples

Maria didn’t eat much at dinner.  She may have been sick.

My friend didn’t return my text message.  He might not have checked his messages yet.

I fell quite badly while I was hiking.  I might have broken my leg.

They aren’t here yet.  They could have gotten in a traffic jam.

He didn’t work very hard on the project.  He must not have been excited about it.

It barked when we saw it.  It must not have been a bear.

When there is weaker certainty about a cause in the form of a modifier (noun, adjective, participle, adverb):

  • Use ‘must have been’ + modifier
Example
He must have been scared when he saw that movie.  It is a terrifying movie.

Exercises

  1. The following paragraph uses modals of probability in the past.  First, underline the modals that express probability in the past.  Then, indicate whether the modal that is used has weak (write ‘w’), medium (write ‘m’), or strong (write ‘s’) probability.
     
    A Bright Light
     

    A: Did you see that bright light in the sky yesterday?

    B: What bright light?

    A: Well, it just lit up the whole sky, and it was just hanging there—not moving at all.

    B: OK?  Well, it must have been the moon then.

    A: No, it couldn’t have been.  The moon was also in the sky—in another place.

    B: What?  Okay, then it could have just been a very bright star.

    A: No, it couldn’t have been.  It was much brighter and bigger than a star.

    B: OK.  So, do you think it may have been a meteor?

    A: No, it couldn’t have been a meteor.  It wasn’t moving.

    B: Well, you may not have seen a meteor, but are you sure that your mind is not playing tricks on you?  Could you have stayed out a little late last night?  Maybe you could have drunk a little too much last night, huh?

    A: No, I was wide awake.  I took a nap in the afternoon, so I couldn’t have lacked sleep—and I didn’t drink anything.

    B: Well then, what do you think you could have seen?

    A: I’m not sure, but it had windows in it, and I could see little green men inside of it.

    B: Well then, I think that you must have been feeling a bit crazy then.  Been to a doctor lately?
     

    Answers show/hide

    A: Did you see that bright light in the sky yesterday?

    B: What bright light?

    A: Well, it just lit up the whole sky, and it was just hanging there—not moving at all.

    B: OK?  Well, it must have been (m) the moon then.

    A: No, it couldn’t have been (m).  The moon was also in the sky—in another place.

    B: What?  Okay, then it could have just been (m) a very bright star.

    A: No, it couldn’t have been (s).  It was much brighter and bigger than a star.

    B: OK.  So, do you think it may have been (w) a meteor?

    A: No, it couldn’t have been (s) a meteor.  It wasn’t moving.

    B: Well, you may not have seen a meteor (w), but are you sure that your mind is not playing tricks on you?  Could you have stayed out (m) a little late last night?  Maybe you could have drunk (m) a little too much last night, huh?

    A: No, I was wide awake.  I took a nap in the afternoon, so I couldn’t have lacked (s) sleep—and I didn’t drink anything.

    B: Well then, what do you think you could have seen (m)?

    A: I’m not sure, but it had windows in it, and I could see little green men inside of it.

    B: Well then, I think that you must have been (s) feeling a bit crazy then.  Been to a doctor lately?

     

  2. Fill in the blanks with a modal form using the different probabilities for a certain level of probability (weak, medium, strong).  Use the context of the sentence to decide whether a weak, medium, or strong modal should be used for that situation.
     
    Use ‘must have’, ‘must not have’, ‘couldn’t have’, or ‘would have’ as the stronger modals of probability.  Use ‘may have’, ‘could have’, ‘may not have’ or ‘might not have’ as the weaker modals of probability.
     
    1. When Elif didn’t call after being out until 2:00 a.m., her mother                       (BE) so angry.
    2. Some people think that the Great Chicago Fire of 1871                       (start) because a cow in a barn kicked a lantern over into the hay, lighting the barn on fire.
    3. I don’t know why Yusuf didn’t come to the meeting.                        (know) the right time.  Did anyone tell him when the meeting started?
    4. When a ‘prank’ Halloween radio broadcast of an alien Martian (Mars) invasion of Earth came over the radio, people                       (BE) absolutely terrified.
    5. The accident                       (avoid).  A black bear suddenly ran out of the trees beside the road at night, when it was very dark.
    6. Filip                       (taken) my suitcase by mistake.  It looked exactly the same as mine.
    7. When teacher Christa McAuliffe took off on the U.S.  space shuttle on January 28, 1986, she                       (know) about the explosion of the shuttle that was soon to happen.
    8. When the first astronauts landed on the moon, they                       (BE) amazed when they saw the Earth from so far away.
    9. Chiara                       (avoid) the embarrassment of making a mistake on her violin in front of 300 people if she had just practiced a little harder.

     

    Answers show/hide
    1. must have been
    2. could have started OR may have started
    3. might not have known OR may not have known
    4. must have been
    5. couldn’t have been avoided
    6. may have taken OR could have taken
    7. couldn’t have known
    8. must have been
    9. could have avoided

     

  3. Finish the sentence or write another sentence to make predictions about the following using the different probabilities that are indicated.
     
    Use ‘must have’, ‘must not have’, or ‘couldn’t have’ as the stronger modals of probability.
     
    Use ‘may have’, ‘could have’, ‘may not have’ or ‘might not have’ as the weaker modals of probability.
     
    1. When Jakob got here, he was all wet.  (must have)                                          
    2. Caroline was so angry when she left her supervisor’s office.  (must not have)                                          
    3. Julia decided to drive to Mexico instead of flying.  (couldn’t have)                                          
    4. Aurora was so angry.  (may have)                                          
    5. Yuka left her laptop at the restaurant.  (could have)                                          
    6. Lukas ran out of gas on the way here.  (may not have)                                          
    7. Krishna didn’t get the money that she had asked her parents for.  (might not have)                                          
    8. Write your own sentences using the following modals:
      1. (could not have, couldn’t have)
                                                                                                                                        
      2. (must not have been)
                                                                                                                                        
      3. (may have)
                                                                                                                                        

     
    Answers will vary.

3.4.3 Probability in the Future: BE Going To

To make a prediction about the future, we use ‘will’ + base form of the verb OR ‘BE going to’ + base form of the verb.

The modal ‘will’ is used to make predictions for future actions while ‘going to’ is used to talk about plans that we have made for the future.  In other words, there is a plan in place now for future action.

Although many grammar textbooks cover the difference between ‘will’ and ‘going to’ under verb tenses, we acknowledge that some language experts believe that there is actually no future tense for English verbs; rather, there are future modals.  They are not verbs in the future tense but rather strictly modals.

We do not change the verb form into a future verb; rather, we use a future modal followed by the base form of the verb.  Note that the future verb ‘will’ is followed by the base form of the verb—we do not say ‘he will goes’; instead, it is ‘he will go’.

3.4.3.1 Simple Modal Forms

The simple modals forms for probability in the future both have strong probability.

  • Will: will + base form of the verb
  • BE going to: BE going to + base form of the verb
Examples

He is going to work on fixing his bicycle this afternoon.

We are going to celebrate my parents’ 30th wedding anniversary next month.  (‘going to’ is expressed as something that is planned ahead of time rather than a prediction or something that is not deliberate)

  • Here, ‘BE going to’ expresses certainty because this form is used to express something that is planned.  It is certain to happen because it is planned ahead of time.  So, it is expected to happen.

For expressing a description of something in a Subject + Linking Verb + Modifier Sentence:

  • Use ‘will be’ or ‘is/are going to be’

3.4.3.2 Phrasal Modal Forms

The phrasal modal forms for probability in the future both have either high (strong), medium, or low (weak) probability.

The phrasal modals for high probability include:

  • ‘will be able to’ + base form verb
  • ‘will not be able to’ + base form verb

There is only one modal for medium probability.  There is no negative form because if the probability is unknown, no negative is possible:

  • ‘should be able to’ + base form verb

The phrasal modals for low probability include:

  • ‘may/might be able to’ + base form verb
  • ‘may/might be able to’ + base form verb

Again, note that the word ‘to’ is part of the modal and not part of an infinitive form of the verb that follows.  This form is used to talk about plans for the future that are not certain to happen.

Examples

Carlos might be able to see his parents in the summer, but he doesn’t know if he can get time off of work.

I may be able to buy a car if I can save several thousand dollars this summer.

I will be able to help you if I am free on Saturday.

Andres will not be able to work for two weeks after his surgery.

3.4.3.3 Questions: Probability in the Future: Will, BE Going To, Be Able To

For yes/no questions using simple modals (will/will not) of probability for the future:

  • Use the regular form for questions with simple modals (aux verb ‘will’ + subject + base form of the verb)
Example
Will he come to class today?

For information questions using simple modals (will/will not) of probability for the future:

  • Question word + aux verb ‘will’ + subject + base form of the verb
Example
When will he come to class today?

For questions using phrasal modal forms, the pattern is:

  • For yes/no questions with phrasal verbs:

    Verb BE + subject + able to + base form of verb

    Example
    Are you able to make Thai food?
  • For information questions with phrasal verbs:

    question word + verb BE (will) + subject of sentence + be able to + base form of the verb

    Examples

    When will you be able to fix my car?

    What time might you be able to meet us for coffee?

    OR

    question word + aux verb + subject of sentence + going to be able to + base form verb

    Example
    When are you going to be able to fix my car?

Exercises

  1. The following paragraph uses modals of probability in the future:
     
    1. The world of our children will definitely be different than our world today.  There will certainly be challenges ahead, but many people are already working on those challenges today.  These people, including scientists, engineers and sociologists, have already been working on these problems, and they are going to continue working on solutions for cutting back on carbon emissions.  The technology that is available now has already changed the way the future will look, and there is hope that we will be able to solve at least some of the major challenges ahead.
    2. We may be able to fix all of the problems ahead, but if we are going to solve these challenges, we should not let fear or negativity stop us from trying.  If there is a any possibility that we may be able to solve them, we should try.  There is too much at risk to just give up.  We must take the attitude of, “If we can do it, we will do it.”

     
    Which paragraph has more modals of strong probability, Paragraph #1 or Paragraph #2? Put a check mark in the blank beside the correct answer.
     
           1st paragraph
           2nd paragraph
     

    Answers show/hide

    The 1st paragraph has more modals of strong probability.

    See the modals in the two paragraphs underlined below.

    1. The world of our children will definitely be (adverb) different than our world today.  There will certainly be challenges ahead, but many people are already working on those challenges today.  These people, including scientists, engineers and sociologists, have already been working on these problems, and they are going to continue working on solutions to cutting back on carbon emissions.  The technology that is available now has already changed the way the future will look, and there is hope that we will be able to solve at least some of the major challenges ahead.
    2. We may be able to fix all of the problems ahead, but if we are going to solve these challenges, we should not let fear or negativity stop us from trying.  If there is any possibility that we may be able to solve them, we should try.  There is too much at risk to just give up.  We must take the attitude of, “If we can do it, we will do it.”

     

  2. In the following sentences, first decide if the sentence requires a modal of strong probability or weak probability.  Then, write either a positive or negative modal of strong, medium or weak probability and add the base form of the verb that is given.  It is possible to use either simple or phrasal modals.  More than one answer might be possible.
     
    1. I’m not sure what the problem with your phone is.  Your phone is quite old.  We                                          (get) parts for it.  We will try, but . . .
    2. Your phone is quite old, but we can probably get parts for it.  We                                          (fix it).
    3. I’m doubtful.  Our new employee keeps coming in late for work.  We                                          (keep) him as an employee.
    4. Our customers really like this coffee.  So, I                                          (order) several boxes of it.
    5. If Martina keeps avoiding studying, she                                          (fail) the test.
    6. When are you                                          (buy) your train ticket?
    7. I                                          (visit) my friend in Vietnam on New Years.

     

    Answers show/hide
    1. may not be able to get
    2. should be able to fix it
    3. may not be able to keep
    4. am going to order
    5. will fail
    6. going to buy
    7. might be able to visit

     

  3. Write questions about your sentences above.  Question #6 is already a question.  Instead, change it to a regular sentence.
    • When writing a question using ‘should be able to’ as the phrasal modal, use ‘would’ instead of ‘should’.

     

    1.                                                                                                                                 
    2.                                                                                                                                 
    3.                                                                                                                                 
    4.                                                                                                                                 
    5.                                                                                                                                 
    6.                                                                                                                                 
    7.                                                                                                                                 

     
    Answers may vary.
     

  4. Finish the sentence or write another sentence to make predictions about the following using the different probabilities that are indicated.
     
    1. Mike has saved up enough money for a new phone.  (going to)                                                                 
    2. I have some free time in the summer.  (might be able to)                                                                 
    3. John has the day off on Saturday.  (should be to)                                                                 
    4. I am excited about graduating in the spring.  When I graduate . . .  (will)                                                                 
    5. When I go home on New Year’s Day.  (going to be able to)                                                                 
    6. I am super busy this week.  (may not be able to)                                                                 

     
    Answers will vary.
     

  5. Write sentences to make predictions about the future using the different indicated modals of probability for the future.
     
    1. (going to)                                                                                                                                 
    2. (might be able to)                                                                                                                                 
    3. (should be able to)                                                                                                                                
    4. (will be)                                                                                                                                 
    5. (must not be)                                                                                                                                 
    6. (may be able to)                                                                                                                                 
    7. (will)                                                                                                                                 

     
    Answers will vary.

4.0 Modals of Ability

4.1 Describing Ability

In addition to describing different levels of possibility, necessity, or probability, modals can be used to describe ability.  When we describe ability, we use verbs to do so.  However, it is still a description of the abilities of a person.

4.2 Multiple Functions or Meanings are Possible

A single modal often express more than one social or practical function.  Though a modal of social function uses the words ‘can’ and ‘could’ to give permission or to extend a choice, the words ‘can’ and ‘could’ can also express a practical function—someone is able to do something.  There are both negative and past forms of the modal of ability.

4.3 Multiple Levels of Certainty are Possible

Modals of ability also have different degrees of certainty.  The modal forms above have a strong degree of certainty.

4.3.1 High Certainty

4.3.1.1 Simple Modal Form: Can Do Something, Cannot Do Something

For statements: subject + modal + base form of the verb

Examples

He can fix an engine.

He cannot fix an electrical problem.

For questions: modal + subject + base form of the verb

Example
Can he fix an engine?

4.3.1.2 Phrasal Modal Form: Able To, Not Able To

Follows the subject + linking verb + modifier sentence pattern, with the verb ‘BE’ as the linking verb followed by ‘able to’ + base form verb as the modifier.  This is descriptive of the subject of the sentence.

For statements: subject + verb BE + phrasal modal + base form of the verb

Examples

Maria is able to speak three languages fluently.

Maria is not able to speak French.

For questions: verb BE + subject + phrasal modal (with ‘to’) + base form of the verb

Example
Is Raul able to finish the work by tomorrow?

4.3.1.3 Other Verb Tenses of Ability: High Certainty

Simple Modals: modal ‘could’ + base form of the verb

  • Past Simple Modal Form: use the past modal ‘could’ + base form of the verb
    Example
    When he was young, my uncle could dance very well.

Phrasal Modals

  • Past Phrasal Modal Form: use the past verb BE (was/were) able to, not able to + base form verb
    Example
    When the baseball pitcher was young, he was able to throw a baseball at 160 kph.
  • Present Perfect: perfect tense verb ‘be’ + able to + base form verb
    Example
    She has been able to graduate after only three years.  (shows that a noteworthy action was completed)

4.3.2 Lower Certainty

We use ‘may be able to’ or ‘might be able to’ to form a phrasal modal of lesser certainty.  The negative forms are ‘may not be able to’ or ‘might not be able to’.

Examples

They may be able to skate on the frozen pond if the ice is thick enough.

He might not be able to get a high enough salary to pay his rent in this city.

For the perfect tense, we use ‘may have been able to’ or ‘might have been able to’.

Example

He may have been able to pass the driving test if he hadn’t gone through a red light.

Exercises

  1. Underline the modals of ability in the following paragraphs.
     
    In the past, the small California town of MacFarland wasn’t exactly well-known.  It was an agricultural town, with many of its residents being Mexican field workers.  One day, however, a high school teacher, Jim White, was hired by the high school.  He had coached high school running teams in the past, but he didn’t really see much potential for running as a sport in this small rural town—at least at first.  The students in the school had never been able to participate in sports before.  They were too busy working in the fields.
     
    But one day, he became aware of the amazing running ability of some of MacFarland’s students.  Some of the Mexican field workers were high school students.  They would go to school in the morning, and then quickly run out to the fields after school to help their parents in the vegetable fields and fruit orchards.  Because of this, they developed an amazing ability.  They could run very fast over long distances, and they were able to do it in heat that could reach 40o Celsius (over 100 degrees Fahrenheit).
     
    So, Coach White began to form a plan.  He thought that these young runners might be able to form a winning running team.  But he realized that the students may not be able to run after school.  Their parents needed them to work in the fields.  But while he thought that they may not have been able to practice after school, he was able to convince their parents to let them join the team.
     
    At first, they did not do well, but eventually they realised that they could do this.  They were able to develop confidence, and they practiced hard.  The students from MacFarland were able to win against other schools that were famous for winning competitions.  Eventually, this team from MacFarland was able to win the California State Track and Field Championship in running.
     
    Answers show/hide

    In the past, the small California town of MacFarland wasn’t exactly well-known.  It was an agricultural town, with many of its residents being Mexican field workers.  One day, however, a high school teacher, Jim White, was hired by the high school.  He had coached high school running teams in the past, but he didn’t really see much potential for running as a sport in this small rural town—at least at first.  The students in the school had never been able to participate in sports before.  They were too busy working in the fields.

    But one day, he became aware of the amazing running ability of some of MacFarland’s students.  Some of the Mexican field workers were high school students.  They would go to school in the morning, and then quickly run out to the fields after school to help their parents in the vegetable fields and fruit orchards.  Because of this, they developed an amazing ability.  They could run very fast over long distances, and they were able to do it in heat that could reach 40o Celsius (over 100 degrees Fahrenheit).

    So, Coach White began to form a plan.  He thought that these young runners might be able to form a winning running team.  However, he also realized that the students may not be able to run after school.  Their parents needed them to work in the fields.  But while he thought that they may not have been able to practice after school, he wanted to try, and he was able to convince their parents to let them join the team.

    At first, they did not do well, but eventually they realised that they could do this.  They were able to develop confidence, and they practiced hard.  The students from MacFarland were able to win against other schools that were famous for winning competitions.  Eventually, this team from MacFarland was able to win the California State Track and Field Championship in running.

     

  2. Use the modals of probability in parentheses below and finish the sentence with your own ideas.
     
    1. When I was a child, I                                                                  (able to, not)
    2. In elementary school, I                                                                  (could)
    3. When I was in high school, my family                                                                  (able to)
    4. When I got my first job, I                                                                  (able to, not)
    5. Right now                                                                  (can, negative)
    6. So far in my life, I                                                                  (able to, perfect tense)
    7. In the future, I                                                                  (able to, might)
    8. In the next year, I                                                                  (able to, not)

     
    Answers will vary.

4.4 Questions: Modals of Ability

4.4.1 Simple Modals

Use the simple modal (can, cannot) + subject + base form verb.

Example

Can you swim?

The question can be expressed using a negative form of the modal of ability.  This expresses surprise at someone’s inability to do something.  This is usually expressed after hearing of an inability that someone had.

Use the simple modal can + subject + not + base form verb.

Example

Can you not swim?

For the past, simply use ‘could’.

Examples

Could you swim when you were a child?

Could you not swim?

4.4.2 Phrasal Modals

Use present, past or future form of verb BE + subject + ‘able to’ + base form verb.

Examples

Were you able to drive a car when you were young?

Will you be able to go to the bank on Saturday?

Might you be able to pick me up after my class?

For the perfect form, use ‘have’ + subject + been able to + base form verb.

Example

Have you been able to study much for this test?

Note: For phrasal modal questions, we do not use ‘may’ as the modal; instead, we use ‘might’.

Exercises

Write questions of ability for the past, present and future that you would like to ask your family, parents, friends, or classmates.  Indicate who you would like to ask the question to.  Alternatively, you could write questions for your classmates and then ask them.  Write their answers.  Use either simple modals or phrasal modals.
  1. Person:                                                                                                                                 
    Past Question:                                                                                                                                 
    Answer:                                                                                                                                 
  2. Person:                                                                                                                                 
    Past Question:                                                                                                                                 
    Answer:                                                                                                                                 
  3. Person:                                                                                                                                 
    Perfect Tense Question:                                                                                                                                 
    Answer:                                                                                                                                 
  4. Person:                                                                                                                                 
    Present Question:                                                                                                                                 
    Answer:                                                                                                                                 
  5. Person:                                                                                                                                 
    Present Question:                                                                                                                                 
    Answer:                                                                                                                                 
  6. Person:                                                                                                                                 
    Future Question:                                                                                                                                 
    Answer:                                                                                                                                 

Answers will vary.

5.0 Hypothetical Conditionals: Conditions in Abnormal or Hypothetical (Imaginary) Situations

Conditionals have already been covered in another chapter.  A condition is when you have a necessary cause for something else to be possible.  In other words, for the desired effect or situation to happen or be true, you need a cause to happen first—the necessary cause is a condition for the action or situation in the effect to happen or be true.

However, the type of situation where we use these modals of conditional possibilities is very specific—it is used for situations in which the needed condition for a desired result would normally be possible, but in the specific situation we are talking about it is not desirable or possible.

We use it in a situation where we explain that we would normally be able to do to make a situation happen, but then we explain why it (the conditional cause) is not desirable or possible.

Here, the modal ‘would’ is used in the conditional clause.  This is followed by a clause explaining why the conditional cause won’t happen or why it is not possible; this clause will usually contain the connecting words ‘but’ or ‘however’, which show an opposite idea.

Example

I would help you move, but I need to work on that day.
  • This means that I would normally help my friend so that they can move (expressed by the modal), but that I am in a situation that is not normal, so I can’t or won’t help them move.

Other verb tenses can be used for this type of conditional.  Different written or spoken forms are used for each.

5.1 Examples with Different Verb Tenses

Present: ‘would’ + base form verb

Example

I would help you, but I need to leave for work right now.

Past: ‘would’ + participle form of verb.

In the case of using the modal ‘would’ for a hypothetical conditional situation, we use the perfect tense in the conditional clause, which uses ‘would’ or ‘could’.  It is the same as using the conditional for a hypothetical situation.

Example

I would have eaten the pizza, but I was feeling sick.

Future: ‘would be able to’ + base form of verb

Example

I would be able to help you tomorrow, but I am sick, and I don’t think I will be better by tomorrow.

Perfect Tense: ‘would have been able to’ + base form of the verb.  We can use the contraction ‘would’ve’ in speaking.

The Perfect Tense is often used in a cause/effect situation, so it can be used with this modal.

Example

I would have gone with you to the movie, but I had to work late yesterday.

Exercises

  1. The following paragraph uses modals in conditions in abnormal or hypothetical (imaginary) situations using past, present, future and perfect forms of modals.  Underline the present, future and perfect forms of modals in the conversation below.
     
    Excuses
     
    A: I heard that you were needing help moving to a new apartment yesterday.  In fact, I really wanted to help you, and I would have been able to help you, but I hurt my back, and I couldn’t lift anything.  I would have helped you in normal situations, but my doctor said that I needed to lie flat on my back.  I even thought of calling some of my friends to try to help you, but they all said that normally they would have helped you, but that they needed to study for an exam the next day–today.  They’re all in the same class.  Luckily, this morning, my back was better, and I was at least able to go to my exam today.
     
    B: (person needing help) Oh, good thing!  Are you finished with your exam?
     
    A: Yes, I think I did quite well actually.  Because I was lying flat on my back yesterday, I was actually able to study a lot without being distracted with other things.  Without that, I think I would’ve normally been distracted by other things like cleaning up my apartment.
     
    B: Well, that’s great, I’m glad you did well on your exam.  Actually, though, because no one was able to help me yesterday, I still need help moving.  Do you have some time this afternoon?
     
    A: Ahh, well, I would, but I really should clean up my apartment.  I mean, I would really love to help, but I just can’t study with a messy apartment—you do understand, don’t you?
     
    B: Well, I would understand, but when I move out, your apartment—I mean our apartment will already be a lot cleaner.
     
    Answers show/hide

    A: I heard that you were needing help moving to a new apartment yesterday.  In fact, I really wanted to help you, and I would have been able to help you, but I hurt my back, and I couldn’t lift anything.  I would have helped you in normal situations, but my doctor said that I needed to lie flat on my back.  I even thought of calling some of my friends to try to help you, but they all said that normally they would have helped you, but that they needed to study for an exam the next day–today.  They’re all in the same class.  Luckily, this morning, my back was better, and I was at least able to go to my exam today.

    B: (person needing help) Oh, good thing!  Are you finished with your exam?

    A: Yes, I think I did quite well actually.  Because I was lying flat on my back yesterday, I was actually able to study a lot without being distracted with other things.  Without that, I think I would’ve normally been distracted by other things like cleaning up my apartment.

    B: Well, that’s great, I’m glad you did well on your exam.  Actually though, because no one was able to help me yesterday, I still need help moving.  Do you have some time this afternoon?

    A: Ahh, well, I would help, but I really should clean up my apartment.  I mean, I would really love to help, but I just can’t study with a messy apartment—you do understand, don’t you?

    B: Well, I would understand, but when I move out, your apartment—I mean our apartment will already be a lot cleaner.

     

  2. Practice with writing clauses for hypothetical conditions that are not desirable or possible situations.  What is the desired result of an action that is not desirable or possible?  Finish the sentences with a clause explaining why the desired result is not possible.  Be sure to use either the coordinating conjunction ‘but’ or the conjunctive adverb ‘however’.
     
    Examples:
    • I would help you, but I need to study for an exam.
    • I would help you.  However, I need to study for an exam.

     

    1. I would get up earlier,                                                                                                                                 
    2. My mother would have been kinder to me,                                                                                                                                 
    3. I could have gotten better grades in high school,                                                                                                                                 
    4. I would learn to play a new instrument.  (use ‘however’)                                                                                                                                 
    5. I would get together with my friends more often,                                                                                                                                 

     
    Answers will vary.
     

  3. Practice writing clauses with modals for abnormal or hypothetical (imaginary) situations using past, present, future and perfect forms of modals.  Add a condition that needs to happen to get the desired result, which is given.  Remember that the condition, however, is not desirable or possible.  Also, there are some blanks where you may need to add a word of your choice to describe the desired result.
     
    Example:
                                                                 , but I don’t have                                                              to take care of it.
    Answer: I would get a pet, but I don’t have time to take care of it.
     
    1.                                                              , but I really don’t like                                                              .
    2.                                                              .  However, I’m not very good at math.
    3.                                                              , but I haven’t learned how to speak French.
    4.                                                              , but I wasn’t very good at                                                               when I was young.
    5.                                                              , but I really don’t want to be a                                                               as a career.

     
    Answers will vary.

5.2 Conditionals in Imaginary Situations

The modals ‘would’ or ‘were to’ can also be used in the effect clause when a hypothetical (imaginary—not real) situation is described.  There are present/future forms and past forms of this use of the modal.

Example

If everyone would clean up their garbage, our neighborhood would be nicer.
  • Here, obviously, it is not possible for everyone to be nice, so it is a hypothetical or imaginary situation.  In the past, the cause has already happened, and you cannot change the past to get a different result.

Form:

  • If Clause in the Present: Use ‘were’ + noun or infinitive
  • Result Clause in the Present/Future: Use ‘would’ + base form of the verb in the result clause
  • Result Clause in Past: Use ‘would have’ + base form of the verb in the result clause

Exercises

  1. The following paragraph uses modals of conditionals in imaginary situations.  In the following passage, underline the modals of conditionals in imaginary situations.
     
    Contrasting Worlds

    Imagine if we ‘human animals’ didn’t take care of our animal family and they were all to go extinct.  Even if we only caused the extinction of many of the animals on the Earth, it is hard to imagine a more dull and boring world.  Hikers would not have to worry about encountering a bear on the trail because there wouldn’t be any, but neither would they experience the joy of seeing a grizzly bear in the distance, minding its own business while feeding on salmon from a far.  There would be no bald eagles floating in the sky.  The African savannah would be empty, except for grass that is much longer than normal because there would not be any animals to eat it.  The few birds that we would see would mostly be of the same breed—crows and brown scavengers, with no colourful hummingbirds flitting around and no vibrant parrots.
     
    Children would go to the zoos and see only live insects or maybe a few small lizards, mice or rodents.  Instead of seeing elephants, tigers, and hippopotami, there would only be fake animatronic animals, moving clumsily in one place—front paws chopping at the air.  Eventually, we would despair of seeing any of the live animals of the past, because once they’re gone you will never bring them back—ever.
     
    But then imagine if we humans were to start to see animals not as pests but as beings that make our world colourful and rich and which we have a relationship with.  Instead of destroying them, we would help them to thrive, blossom, and flourish.  Instead of seeing a few small elk herds roaming the meadows of the Rocky Mountains, we would see vast herds of them as far as the eye could see.  Instead of seeing a few small flocks of flamingoes on a small lake, the lake would be bursting with pink from shore to shore to shore.
     
    If we were to care and stop to think about the effects of our actions now, at least we would keep what we have now, though it is already less than before.  It truly is an amazing, awe-inspiring world that we live in.  What if we were to realize the riches of our extraordinary world?  Wouldn’t the sound of thousands of buffalo hooves pounding on the prairie be more exciting and worthwhile than staring at our phones for mind-numbing hours at a time?
     

    Answers show/hide

    Imagine if we ‘human animals’ didn’t take care of our animal family and they were all to go extinct.  Even if we only caused the extinction of many of the animals on the Earth, it is hard to imagine a more dull and boring world.  Yes, hikers would not have to worry about encountering a bear on the trail because there wouldn’t be any, but neither would they experience the joy of seeing a grizzly bear in the distance, minding its own business while feeding on salmon.  There would be no bald eagles floating in the sky.  The African savannah would be empty, except for grass that is much longer than normal because there would not be any animals to eat it.  The few birds that we would see would mostly be of the same breed—crows and brown scavengers, with no colourful hummingbirds flitting around and no vibrant parrots.

    Children would go to the zoos and see only live insects or maybe a few small lizards, mice or rodents.  Instead of seeing elephants, tigers, and hippopotami, there would only be fake animatronic animals, moving clumsily in one place, their front paws chopping at the air.  Eventually, we would despair over seeing any of the live animals of the past, because once they’re gone you will never bring them back—ever.

    But then imagine if we humans were to start to see animals not as pests but as beings that make our world colourful and rich and which we have a relationship with.  Instead of destroying them, we would help them to thrive, blossom, and flourish.  Instead of seeing a few small elk herds roaming the meadows of the Rocky Mountains, we would see vast herds of them as far as the eye could see.  Instead of seeing a few small flocks of flamingoes on a small lake, the lake would be bursting with pink from shore to shore to shore.

    If we were to care and stop to think about the effects of our actions now at least we would keep what we have now, though it is already less than before.  It truly is an amazing, awe-inspiring world that we live in.  What if we were to realize the riches of our extraordinary world?  Wouldn’t the sound of thousands of buffalo hooves pounding on the prairie be more exciting and worthwhile than staring at our phones for mind-numbing hours at a time?

     

  2. Finish the following sentences using hypothetical modals and a base verb of your choice.
     
    1. If I were a dolphin,                                                                 .
    2. If everyone had a flying car,                                                                 .
    3. If robots did all of our work,                                                                 .
    4. In a classroom with no tests,                                                                 .
    5. In a world where it was always winter,                                                                 .

     
    Answers will vary.
     

  3. Write about your own imaginary world.  First, identify the world you are imagining by completing the sentence below.  Then, tell the condition that is necessary for this world to exist.  Finally, use hypothetical modals to explain the effects that would be possible in this world if your condition is met.
     
    Example:
    The world you imagine is a world where everyone gets free candy.
    The condition needed: In a world where everyone got free candy . . .
    The possible results:
    • Children would all be very happy.
    • Parents would worry about their children’s health.
    • Dentists would soon be very rich.

     
    The world you imagine is a world where                                                                                                                 
    The condition needed: ­­                                                                                                                                
    The possible results:

    1.                                                                                                                                 
    2.                                                                                                                                 
    3.                                                                                                                                 
    4.                                                                                                                                 
    5.                                                                                                                                 

     
    Answers will vary.

6.0 Habits in the Past: Used To

When we talk about habits or regular activities that happened in the past but no longer happen, we use the phrase ‘used to’ + base form of the verb.  The phrase ‘used to’ is a past modal, even though the base verb itself is not in the past tense.  The phrase is a ‘past modal’.

Example

Simple Past:
My friend used to speed in his car.  Then, he had an accident and realized how dangerous it is.  Luckily, he wasn’t seriously hurt.
  • Here, we know that the friend mentioned no longer speeds because we are using a past modal.

Exercise

List five things that you or someone you know used to do but no longer do.  First, write a clause telling what you or someone else used to do.  Then, write a clause using ‘because’ as the coordinating conjunction.  Finally, combine the two clauses.
 
Example:
Action: I used to drink a lot of soda.
Why you don’t do it anymore: I learned how much sugar it has in it.
Complete Sentence: I used to drink a lot of soda, but I quit drinking (or quit doing it) because I learned how much sugar it has in it.
 
  1. Action:                                                                                      
    Why it is not done anymore:                                                                                      
    Complete Sentence:                                                                                      
  2. Action:                                                                                      
    Why it is not done anymore:                                                                                      
    Complete Sentence:                                                                                      
  3. Action:                                                                                      
    Why it is not done anymore:                                                                                      
    Complete Sentence:                                                                                      
  4. Action:                                                                                      
    Why it is not done anymore:                                                                                      
    Complete Sentence:                                                                                      
  5. Action:                                                                                      
    Why it is not done anymore:                                                                                      
    Complete Sentence:                                                                                      

 
Answers will vary.

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English Grammar for Academic Purposes Copyright © 2025 by Randal Thiessen is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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